Development

3 Processes

a pattern of continuity and change in human capailities that occurs through course of life

Physical Processes

Cognative Prcesses

Socioemotional Processes

Observable characteristics

Contributions of both nature and nurture (interaction)

Cell divisions (100-150 cells make up a zygote)

Attachment to uterine wall

Intensified cell differentiation

Development of support system

Appearance of organs

Neural tube (spinal cord) starts to take shape

Teratogen

Any agent that cause birth defect

Chemical substances; Nicotine, heroin, alcohol

Certain illnesses:Rubella, sexually transmitted diseases HIV

Preterm Birth (prior to 37 weeks)

Risk for developmental difficulties

Genetically wired

Sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking, yawning, grasping, startle

Reflexes disappear as infant matures

Motor skills as a convergence of nature and nurture

Motor and preceptual skills couples and interdependent

Preferential Looking Technique

Habituation

Branching of dendrites

Myelination

Dramatic increase in synaptic connections

'Pruning' of unused neural connections

Rapid growth in frontal lobe areas

Sensorimotor Stage

Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions

Development ofobject permanence, as objects are no longer "out of sight, out of mind"

Beginning of symbolic thinking

Inability to perform operations, or reversible mental representations

Egocentric (can't see another's perspective) and intuitive thinking

Successful conservation task, ability to "reverse"

Ability to classify things into different sets

Thinking about things that are not concrete

Making predictions

Using logic to come up with hypotheses about future

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

-Developing hypotheses about ways to solve a problem

Underestimation of infants

Overestimation of adolescent and adults

Lack of belief in roles of culture and education in cognitive development

L. Vygotsky (Russian psychologist)

Emphasis on interpersonal process in culture context

Interactions with others providing scaffolding

Temperament

Attachment in Infancy

Erikson's Theory

Parenting and Developmental Outcomes

Divorce and Developmental Outcomes

Moral Development

Gender Development

Behavioral style, characteristic way of responding

Chess & Thomas

Also, self regulation, inhibition, negative affectivity may be dimensions along which infants differ

Easy Child

-positive mood, regualr routiens, easily adapts

Difficult Child

-reacts negatively, irregular routine, slow to adapt

Slow-to-Warm-Up Child

-low activity/intensity, somewhat negative, inflexible

Attachment is the close emotional bond between infant and caregiver

H. Harlow's Monkeys & Contact Comfort

Ainsworth's Strange Situation and Secure Attachment

H. Harlow's Monkeys & Contact Comfort

Ainsworth's Strange Situation and Secure Attachment

Caregiver as base from which to explore

May not adequately account for cultural variations

Theory of life-span developmet

-Four stages in childhood

-Four stages in adolescence and adulthood

Stages represent developmental tasks to master

Two possible outcomes for each task

-Greater personal competence or

-Greater weakness and vulnerability

Trust vs. Mistrust (first 18 months)

-Getting needs met

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1 1/2 to 3 years)

-Developing sense of independence

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years)

-Assuming more responsibility for self

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty)

-Mastering knowledge and intellectual skills

Parenting and Development

Diana Baumrind

Four Basic styles of parent-child interaction

1.Authoritarian Parenting

-Restrictive, punitive style

2. Authoritative Parenting

-Encouragement of independence, within limits

3. Neglectful Parenting

-Lack of parental involvement

4. Permissive Parenting

-few limits on child's behavior

Mavis Heatherington's research shows:

-Children vulnerable to stress during divorce

-Adjustment difficulties in 25% of children and adolescents in divorced families (10% in non divorced families)

-Better adjustment predicted by certain factors

Harmony between divorced parents

Authoritative parenting

Good schools

Easy (rather than difficult) child temperament

Kohlberg

changes in principles and values guiding behavior

Kohlberg

Focuses on rights of individual

Independent moral decisions

Carol Gilligan

Views people in terms of connectedness to others

Interpersonal communication

Gender Roles (expectations of behavior)

Gender Schema (cognitive framework for interpreting experiences related to gender)

Peers influence gender development

Resilience in Childhood

3 Factors

Ability to recover from, or adapt to, difficulty

Resilient children -> Capable adults

Individual Factors

-Good intellectual functioning

Extrafamilial Factors

-Bonds to supportive, competent adults

Developmental period of transition from childhood to adulthood

- From 10-12 years of age, to 18-21 years old

-Ethnic, cultural, historical, gender, socioeconomic, and lifestyle variations in life trajectories

Period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation

Hormonal changes

-Testosterone in boys

-Estradiol in girls

Earlier development of amygdala (emotion)

Later development of prefrontal cortex (reasoning)

Advance in Piaget's formal operational state

Adolescent egocentrism

Belief that others are also preoccupied with adolescent

Belief that one is unique

Belief that one is invincible

E. Erikson's Theory and Identity Development

Socioemotional

James Marcia's Theory of Identity Status (2 dimensions are important)

Socioemotional

Exploration of options for career and personal values

Commitment to, and investment in, and identity path

Ethnic Identity

Socioemotional

Biculturalism

Strong ethnic identity is beneficial

Adolescent Development

Parents

As effective managers

As effective monitors and supervision

Adolescent Development

Peers

Adolescent Development

Adolescence

Time of evaluation, decision making, and commitment

Searching for an identity

Access to legitimate opportunities for growth

Transitional period from adolescence to adulthood

-From 18 to 25 years of age

-Characterized by experimentation and exploration

Identity expliration

Instability

Self-focus

Feeling "in between"

Age of possibilities

Physical Development

Early Adulthood (20's & 30's)

Decline of physical skills, hearing, vision

Physical Development

Middle Adulthood (40's & 50's)

Changes in appearance, vision

Menopause, and hot flashes, in women

Physical Development

Late Adulthood (65+)

New brain cells possible throughout life (new concept); re-growth limited to:

-Hippocampus

-Olfactory bulb

Repair capability (rewiring) to conmpensate for losses

Changes (decreases) in lateralization as adaptation

Aging brain's ability to grow and change

Early Adulthood

Cognitive Development

Middle Adulthood

Cognitive Development

Crystallized intelligence higher, fluid intelligence lower

May be a peak for many intellectual skills

Late Adulthood

Cognitive Development

Erikcon's Adult Stages

Marriage

Parenting

Midlife Crises

Socioemotional Aspects of Aging

Initimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)

-Forming healthy and intimate relationships

Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)

-Helping younger generation develop useful lives

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

-Looking back and evaluating one's life

J Gottman

Nurturing fondness and admiration

Turning toward each other as friends

Giving up some power

Solving conflicts together

Daniel Levinson

Heightened awarness of finite nature of life

Importance of contributing legacy to future

Active and involved -> Satisfied and healthy

Selective about social networks

Better control of emotions

Motivation

3 Approaches/Theories

Motivation as force that moves people to behave, think, and feel as they do

Evolutionary Approach

Drive Reduction Theory

Optimal Arousal Theory

Ethology

Evolutionary Approach

Instinct

Evolutionary Approach

Innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior assumed to be universal throughout species

Set in motion by a sign stimulus (something in the environment that turns on a fixed pattern)

Drive

Drive Reduction Theory

Need

Drive Reduction Theory

Homeostasis

Drive Reduction Theory

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Optimum Arousal Theory

Low arousal

Optimum Arousal Theory

Too lethargic to perform tasks well

High arousal

Optimum Arousal Theory

Stomach contractions

Cholecysokinin (CCK)- hormone which hekps start digestion of food and signals us to stop eating

Glucose- blood sugar (energy source)

Insulin- plays role in glucose control

Leptin- released by fat cells, decrease food intake

Lateral Hypothalamus- involved in stimulating eating

Ventromedial Hypothalamus- reducing hunger

Genetic component

Set Point

-Weight maintained when no effort made to gain or lose weight

Emotional state and external stimuli

Time and place associations

Taste prefrences based on past scarcity of reliable food sources

Hypothalamus- Motivation for sex

Cerebral Cortex (frontal lobes) moderate sexual arousal

Limbic System

Activated by neurotransmitters (dopamine) and sex hormones (e.g. testosterone)

Estogen (females)

Androgens (males)

Excitement Phase

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Plateau Phase

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Orgasm

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Resolution Phase

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Return of blood vessels to normal state

Refractory period in males

Cognitive capacity to think about sex and about others

Sexual Scripts

-Sterotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually

Touch (women)

Vision (men)

Sexaul orientation refers to the direction of erotic interests

Created by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, anad environmental factors

Attitudes in society generally more positive towards homoseuality

Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs

Self-Determination Theory

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Self-Regulation

Sequence of needs to satisfy

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Strongest needs at base, weakest at top

Lower needs reflect deficiencies

Self-actualization

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Motivation to develop full potential as human being

Highest and most elusive need

Top -> Bottom

Self-actialization

Esteem

Love and beloningness

Safety

Physiological

Three basic, innate organismic needs

1. Competence

-Abel to bring about desired outcomes

-Self-efficacy and mastery

2. Relatedness

 -Need to engage in warm relation with others

3. Autonomy

-Sense of control of own life

Individualistuc vs. Collectistic Cultures

Based on internal factors

May have more positive outcomes

Includes external incentives

May diminish intrinsic motivation

*successful individuals may be both

Process of effortfully controlling behavior in order to pursue important objectives (goals)

Getting feedback as a key aspect

-Daily mood as a wat of recieving feedback

Concrete and specific goals

Long-term vs. Short-term goals

Planning for implementation

Monitoring progress

Feeling, or affect, that can involve

-Physiological arousal

-Conscious experience

-Behavioral expression

Biological Factors

Cognitive Factors

Behavioral Factors

Sociocultural Factors

Arousal

Autonomic Nervous System

Messages to/from body's internal organs

Sympathetic Nervous System

-Involved in body's arousal

Parasympathetic Nervous System

-Calms body

Skin Conductance Level (SCL)

Polygraph, or Lie Detector

Stimulus -> Physiological Reacton -> Reaction

Each emotion has distinct set of physiological changes

Stimulus -> Physiological Reaction & Emotion

Different emotions could not be associated with specific physiological changes

Plays central role in fear

Recieves neurons from senses, sends messages to organs

Linked with emotional memories

Also participates in positive emotions

Schachter & Singer

Emotion = Physiological Arousal + Cognitive Labeling

Dutton & Aron

Misinterpreted arousal (sexual or fear?) intensifies emotional experiences

Cognitive activity (appraisals of self and social circumstances) as precondition for emotion

Thoughts as a result of emotion

"Preferences (feelings) need no inferences"

Lazarus, about clusters of related events over time

Zajonc, about single events or simple preferences

Verbal or nonverbal

Facial expressions as reflecting emotion

Facial expressions as influencing emotion

Singnals to brain from facial muscles to help recognize emotion being experienced

Facial expressions of basic emotions are universal (Paul Ekman)

Display Rules

-Sociocultural standards determining when, where, how emotions should be expressed

Men and woman more alike in ways of experiencing emotion than stereotypes suggest

May be a difference in emotional intelligence (woman better)

Anger

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

Disgust

Suprise

Whether emotion feels pleasant or unpleasant

Negative Affect

-Negative emotions, such as anger, guilt, sadness

Positive Affect

-Positive emotions, such as joy, happiness, interest

Associated with capacity to thrive during difficult times

Ability to bounce back from negative experiences

Biological Factors

The Pursuit of Happiness

Heritability estimates range from 50% to 80%

May be a happiness set point (similar to weight)

Obstacles

The Pursuit of Happiness

Hedonic Treadmill (Pos. feelings last short time)

-Adapting to changes that influence happiness

Pursuing happiness as a goal (elusive)

Happiness Activities & Goal Striving

The Pursuit of Happiness

Activities associated with enhanced positive emotion

Commitment to pursuit of personally meaningful goals

Personality is the pattern of enduring, distinctive...

-thoughts

-emotions

-behaviors

...that characterize how an individual adapts to the world

Sexual Drive

-Most important human motivator

-Main determinant of personality

Hysteria

-Physical symptoms that have no physical cause

-Hysterical symptoms as overdetermined, or having multitude of causes in unconscious

Consists of unconscious drives

Resevoir of sexual energy

Works according to pleasure

Deals with demands of reality

Abides by reality principle

Evaluates morality of behavior

Reflected in "conscience"

Universal stages of personality development

Erogenous Zones

-Parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular developmental stages

Adult personality as determined by way conflicts resolved between early sources of pleasure and demands reality

Pleasure centers around mouth

Chewing, sucking, biting reduce tension

Pleasure centers around anus and urethra and their functions

Toilet training

Pleasure focuses on genitals

-Discovery that self-stimulation is enjoyable

Boy's intense desire to replace father and enjoy affections of mother

Castration Anxiety

-Boy's intense fear of being mutilated by father

Identifying with father and adopting male gender role to reduce conflict, as foundation for superego

-Without experience of castration anxiety, girls cannot develop superego like boys

Setting aside all interest in sexuality

No real development, according to Freud

Genital Stage (puberty to adulthood)

Sexual reawakening

Source of sexual pleasure outside family

Sexuality not pervasive force behind personality

-Oedipal complex not universal

First five years not as powerful in shaping adult personality

Ego and conscious thought more dominant

-Ego with separate line of development from id

Sociocultural factors more important

Freud's hypothesis lacking support of observable data

Sociocultural influnces on personality development

Both sexes envy attributes of other

-Women -> status bestowed upon men

-Men -> Reproductive capabilities of women

Need fpr security, not sex, as prime motive

Collective Unconscious

Archetypes

Impersonal, deepest layer of unconsious mind

Shared by all human beings because of ancestral past

Emotionally-laden ideas and images that have rich and symbolic meaning for all people

Anima (female) & Animus (male)

Mandala (design or image that represents "unconscious self")

Persona (Public facade)

People are motivated by purposes, goals

Perfection, not pleasure, as key motivator

Compensation

-Attempt to overcome inferiorities by developing abilities

Style of Life

-Each person's unique striving for superiority

Birth Order

-Could influence success of striving for superiority

Personality determined by current and early life experiences

Personality as developmental (stages)

Mental transformation of experiences for meaning

Mind as not all conscious

Inner world conflicting with outer demands of reality, creating anxiety

Personality and adjustment as psychology topics

Criticisms

Contributions

Overly negative and pessimistic views

Too much faith in unconscious mind

Too much importance on sexulity

Not a theory that can be tested empirically

Childhood as crucial to later functioning

Development understood in terms of stages

Unconscious processes playing a significant role

Person's capacity for personal growth

Positive human qualities

Ability to...

-control our lives

-achieve what we desire

Maslow

Rogers

Humanistic psychology as 'third force'

Focus on very best examples of human beings: Self-actualizers

-Motivated to develop full potential as human beings

-At optimal level of existence

-Capacity for 'peak experiences'

Maslow's list of self-actualized individuals may biased, in terms of gender and culture

Unconditional positive regard

-Being accepted, valued, and treated positively

Conditions of worth

-Societal Standards to meet kin order to recieve positive regard from others

Self-concept

-Representation of who we are and who we wish to be

Healthy human relations

-Unconditional positive regard

-Empathy

-Genuineness

Percieving self and world as essential elemet of personality

Consider whole person and positive bent of human nature

Emphasis on conscious experience

Criticisms

-Too optimitic, overestimating freedom and rationality

-Promoting excessive self-love and narcissism

-Not holding people accountable for behaviors

Broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characterisic responses

Gordon Allport

Lexical (language) approach and factor analysis

Focus on healthy, well adjusted individuals

Uniqueness of each person and capacity to adapt

Traits

-Mental structures that make different situations same

-State=temporary emotional condition (e.g. anxiety)

Five Supertraits though to descibe main dimensions of personality (CANOE)

Neuroticism (Emotional Instability)

Extraversion

Openness to Experience

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Different cultures

animals

Extraversion -> Higer levels of well being

Neuroticism -> Lower levels of well being

Spending more time with loved others

Savoring

-Attending to positive experiences and appreciating them

Practical value of personality traits

Connections between personality traits and...

-health

-ways of thinking

-career success

-realtions with others

Criticisms

-Missing importance of situational factors

-Painting personality with very broad strokes

Henry Murray

Personology

-Study of whol person

-"The history of the organism is the organism"

Analysis of Hitler as first "offender profile"

Thematic Appercetion Test (TAT)

-Measure of motives, which are largely known

Dan McAdams

Our life stories are our identities

Life Story Interviews

-Coded for themes relevant to life stages and transitions

Intimacy Motive

-Enduring concern for warm interpersonal encounters

Psychobiography

-Means of inquiry that applies personality theory to single person's life

Extraordinarily rich opportunity for researcher

Criticisms:

Difficult and time-consuming

-Collecting interviews and narratives

-Extensive coding and content analysis

Psychobiographical inquiries...

-More prone to biases

-May not serve scientific goal of generaliZABILITY

Emphasize

-conscious awarness

-beliefs

-expectations

-goals

Incorporate principles from behaviorism

Explore ability...

-to reason

-to think about past, present, and future

-to reflect on self

Reciprocal Determinism

Observational Learning

Personal/Locus of Control (of reinforcement)

Self-Efficacy

Internal Locus of Control

External Locus of Control

Behavior

Environment

Person and cognitive factors

Walter Mischel

No evidence of cross-situational consistency

Situationism

-Personality and behavior often vary from one context to another

Controversial among personality psychologists

Cognitive Affective Processing Systems

Thoughts and emotions about self/world affect behavior

Concerned with how personality works: "It depends"

Social Cognitive Persepctive

Focuses on interactions of person with environment

Highlights observation of behavior

Emphasizes influence of cognitive processes

Criticisms

-Too concerned with change and situational influences rather than enduring qualities of personality

-Ignore role of biology in personality

-Tends to lead to very specific predictions, making generalizations impossible

Personality based on bodily fluids, or humours

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Eysenck's Theory

Located in brain stem

Plays role in wakefulness or arousal

All share optimal arousal level

RAS of extraverts and introverts may differ in baseline levels or arousal, with behaviors aimed at regulating arousal around these baselines

But introverts may just be more sensitive to stimuli

Jeffrey Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity

Behavioral approach system (BAS) and behavioral inhibiton system (BIS) underlie personality

Difference in sensitivity to rewards and punishers

-BAS
-BIS

Sensitive to rewards

Predispostion to postive emotion

Underlies extraversion

Sensitive to punishers

Predisposition to fear

Underlies neuroticism

Function in experience of reward, pleasure

Factor in BAS or extraversion

Related to neuroticism

Less serotonin -> More negative mood

Inhibitionof serotonin reuptake

-Decrease negative mood

-Enhances feelings of sociability

Study of inherited underpinnings of behavioral characteristics

Twin Studies

Role of genetic factors enormously complex

Genes and environments intertwined

Traits influenced by multiple genes

Genetic factors explain differences in big five traits

Autobiographical memories influenced be genetics

Animal learning models

Advances in brain imaging

Evolutionary theory

Biology can be effect, not cause, of personality

Issue of whether personality can change throughout life

Rigorous methods for measuring mental processes

Assess personality for different reasons

Self Report Tests

Projective Tests

Other Assessment Methods

Motivates individuals to respond in ways that make them look better

To address social desirability

-Give questionnaire designed to tap into tendency

-Design scales so it it impossible to tell what is being measured

-Use empiracally-keyed test to distinguish known groups

Most widely used and researched empiracally-keyed self-report personality test

Used to asses personality and predict outcomes

Geared toward assessing five-factor model

Includes items with face validity

Present individuals with ambiguous stimulus

Ask them to describe it, or tell a story about it

Especially designed to elicit unconscious feelings and conflicts

Theoretically aligned with psychodynamic persepectives on personality

Ten unkblots, when descibed, scored for indicating underlying psychological characteristics

Reliability and validity criticized

Designed to elicit stories that reveal personality

Higher reliability and validity

Measuring behavior directly

Cognitive assessments

Friend or peer ratings

Psychophysiological measures

Choice depends greatly on theoretical persepctive