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| the rules of language that enable the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols to convey meaning |
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| rules governing how sounds should be combined to make words in a language |
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| rules governing how words should be combined to form sentences |
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| the rules used in language to communicate meaning |
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| the smallest significant sound units in speech |
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| the smallest units in a language that carry meaning |
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| the literal ordering of words in a sentence |
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| the underlying representation of meaning in a sentence |
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| the practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an effective response |
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| a class of objects (people, places, or things) that most people agree belong together |
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| the set of features necessary to make objects acceptable members of a category |
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| the core features that category members share; a given member of the category may have some but not necessarily all of these features |
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| the best or most representative member of a category (such as robin for the category "bird"). |
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| specific examples of category members that are stored in long-term memory |
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| the level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and predictive information; the basic level usually resides at an intermediate level in a category hierarchy |
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| a problem with a well-stated goal, a clear starting point, and a relatively easy way t tell when a solution has been obtained. |
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| a problem, such as the search for "happiness," that has no well-stated goal, no clear starting point, and no mechanism for evaluating progress |
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| the tendency to see objects, and their functions, in a certain fixed and typical ways |
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| step-by-step rules or procedures that, if applied correctly, guarantee a problem solution |
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| the rules of thumb we use to solve problems; heuristics can usually be applied quickly, but they do not guarantee that a solution will be found |
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| a problem-solving heuristic that involves devising actions, or mean, that reduce the distance between the current starting point and the desired end (the goal state) |
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| a problem-solving heuristic that involves starting at the goal state and moving backward toward the starting point to see how the goal state can be reached |
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| a problem-solving heuristic that involves trying to find a connection between the current problem and some previous problem you have solved successfully |
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| the tendency to rely on well-established strategies when attempting to solve problems |
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| the moment when a problem solution seems to pop suddenly into one's mind |
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| the thought processes involved in evaluating and choosing from among a set of alternatives; it usually involves some kind of risk |
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| the way in which the alternatives in a decision-making situation are structured |
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| the tendency to seek out and use information that supports and confirms a prior decision or belief |
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| in decision making, the tendency to cling to initial beliefs when confronted with disconfirming evidence |
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Term
| representativeness heuristic |
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Definition
| the tendency to make decisions based on an alternative's similarity, or representativeness, in relation to an ideal. For example, people decide whether a sequence is random based on how irregular the sequence looks |
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| the tendency to base estimates on the ease with which examples come to mind |
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| the use of psychological tests to measure the mind and mental processes |
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| a statistical procedure that groups together related items on tests by analyzing the correlations among test scores |
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| according to Spearman, a general factor, derived from factor analysis, that underlies or contributes to performance on a variety of mental tests |
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| s (specific intelligence) |
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Definition
| according to Spearman, a specific factor, derived from factor analysis, that is unique to a particular kind of test. |
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Definition
| the natural ability to solve problems, reason, and remember; fluid intelligence is thought to be relatively uninfluenced by experience |
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| crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| the knowledge and abilities acquired as a result of experience (as from the schooling and cultural influences). |
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| the notion proposed by Howard Gardner that people possess a set of separate and independent "intelligences" ranging from musical to linguistic to interpersonal ability |
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| Robert Sternberg's theory of intelligence; it proposes three types of intelligence; analytic, creative, and practical |
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| psychological tests that measure your current level of knowledge or competence in a particular subject |
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| psychological tests that measure your ability to learn or acquire knowledge in a particular subject |
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| a measure of the consistency of test results; reliable tests produce similar scores or indices from one administration to the next |
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| an assessment of how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Content validity assess the degree to which the test samples broadly across the domain of interest; predictive validity assesses how well the test predicts some future criterion; construct validity assesses how well the test taps into a particular theoretical construct |
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Definition
| keeping the testing, scoring, and interpretation procedures similar across all administrations of a test |
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| the chronological age that best fits a child's level of performance on a test of mental ability |
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Term
| intelligence quotient (IQ) |
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Definition
| mental age divided by chronological age and then multiplied by 100 |
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Definition
| an intelligence score that is derived from determining where your performance sits in an age-based distribution of test scores |
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| a label generally assigned to someone who scores below 70 on a standard IQ test, although other factors, such as one's ability to adapt to the environment, are also important |
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| a label generally assigned to someone who scores above 130 on a standard IQ test |
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| the ability to generate ideas that are original, novel, and useful |
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Definition
| the ability to perceive, understand, and express emotion in way that are useful and adaptive |
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| unspoken practical knowledge about how to perform will on the job |
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| a mathematical index that represents the extent to which IQ differences in a particular population can be accounted for by genetic factors |
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| unlearned characteristic patterns of responding that are controlled by specific triggering stimuli in the world |
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| a psychological state that arises in response to an internal physiological need, such as hunger or thirst |
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| the process through which the body maintains a steady state, such as a constant internal temperature or an adequate amount of fluids |
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| external factors in the environment that exert pulling effects on our actions |
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| an internal drive or need for achievement that is possessed by all individuals to varying degrees |
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| goal-directed behavior that seems to be entirely self-motivated |
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| the idea popularized by Maslow that human needs are prioritized in a hierarchy |
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Definition
| a kind of sugar that cells require for energy production |
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Definition
| a hormone released by the pancreas that helps pump nutrients in the blood to the cells, where they can be stored as fat or metabolized into needed energy |
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| a hormone that may regulate the amount of energy stored in fat cells |
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| a natural body weight, perhaps produced by genetic factors, that the body seeks to maintain |
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| a weight problem characterized by excessive body fat |
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| an eating disorder diagnosed when an otherwise healthy person refuses to maintain a normal weight level because of an intense fear of being overweight |
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Definition
| an eating disorder in which the principal symptom is binge eating (consuming large quantities of food) followed by purging, in which the person voluntarily vomits or uses laxatives to prevent weight gain |
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Definition
| the first component of the human sexual response cycle; it's characterized by changes in muscle tension. increased heart rate and blood pressure, and a rushing of blood into the genital organs |
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Definition
| the second stage in the human sexual response cycle. arousal continues to increase, although at a slower rate, toward a preorgasm maximum point |
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Definition
| the third stage in the human sexual response cycle. It's characterized by rhythmic contractions in the sex organs; in men, ejaculation occurs. There is also the subjective experience of pleasure, which appears to be similar for men and women |
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Definition
| the fourth and final stage in the human sexual response cycle. Arousal returns to normal levels. For men, there is a refractory period during which further stimulation fails to produce visible signs of arousal |
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Definition
| learned cognitive programs that instruct us on how, why, and what to do in our interactions with sexual partners |
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Definition
| a person's sexual and emotional attraction to members of the same sex or the other sex; homosexuality, heterosexuality, and bisexuality are all sexual orientations |
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Term
| facial-feedback hypothesis |
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Definition
| the proposal that muscles in the face deliver signals to the brain that are then interpreted, depending on the pattern, as a subjective emotional state |
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| a theory of emotion that argues that body reactions precede and drive the subjective experience of emotions |
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| a theory of emotion that argues that body reactions and subjective experiences occur together, but independently |
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| a theory of emotion that argues that the cognitive interpretation, or appraisal, of a body reaction drives the subjective experience of emotion |
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Definition
| the study of how people use cognitive processes-such as perception, memory, thought, and emotion-to help make sense of other people as well as themselves |
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Definition
| a general knowledge structure, stored in long-term memory, that relates to social experiences or people |
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Definition
| the collection of beliefs and impressions held about a group and its members; common stereotypes include those based on gender, race, and age |
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| self-fulfilling prophecy effect |
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Definition
| a condition in which our expectations about the actions of another person actually lead that person to behave in the expected way |
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Definition
| positive or negative evaluations of a group and its members |
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| behaviors that are directed against members of a group |
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| the inference processes people use to assign cause and effect to behavior |
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Definition
| attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an external event or situation in the environment |
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Definition
| attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an internal personality trait or disposition |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| when people seek to interpret someone else's behavior, they tend to overestimate the influence of internal personal factors and underestimate the role of situational factors |
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Definition
| the overall tendency to attribute our own behavior to external sources but to attribute the behavior of others to internal sources |
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Definition
| the tendency to make internal attributions about one's own behavior when the outcome is positive and to blame the situation when one's behavior leads to something negative |
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Definition
| a positive or negative evaluation or belief held about something, which in turn may affect one's behavior; attitudes are typically broken down into cognitive, affective, and behavioral components |
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Term
| elaboration likelihood model |
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Definition
| a model proposing two primary routes to persuasion and attitude change: a central route, which operates when we are motivated and focusing our attention on the message, and a peripheral route, which operates when we are either unmotivated to process the message or are unable to do so |
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Definition
| features of the person who is presenting a persuasive message, such as his or her attractiveness, amount of power, or fame |
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| the tension produced when people act in a way that is inconsistent with their attitudes |
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| the idea that people use observations of their own behavior as a basis for inferring their internal beliefs |
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| the study of how the behaviors and thoughts of individuals are affected by the presence of other |
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Definition
| the enhancement in performance that is sometimes found when an individual performs in the presence of others |
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| the impairment in performance that is sometimes found when an individual performs in the presence of others |
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| acting in a way that shows unselfish concern for the welfare of others |
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Definition
| the reluctance to come to the aid of a person in need when other people are present |
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| diffusion of responsibility |
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Definition
| the idea that when people know (or think) that others are present in a situation, they allow their sense of responsibility for action to diffuse, or spread out widely, among those who are present |
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Definition
| the tendency to put out less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone |
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| the loss of individuality, or depersonalization, that comes from being in a group |
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Definition
| the tendency to comply with the wishes of the group; when people conform, their opinions, feelings, the behaviors generally start to move toward the group norm |
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| a group of individuals with whom one shares features in common or with whom one identifies |
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| the tendency for a group's dominant point of view to become stronger and more extreme with time |
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Definition
| the tendency for members of a group to become so interested in seeking a consensus of opinion that they start to ignore and even suppress dissenting views |
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| the form of compliance that occurs when people respond to the orders of an authority figure |
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| the tendency for people to return in kind the feelings that are shown toward them |
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Definition
| an intense emotional state characterized by a powerful longing to be with a specific person; passionate love is marked by a combination of intimacy and passion, but commitment may be lacking. |
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Definition
| a kind of emotional attachment characterized by feelings of trust and companionship; companionate love is marked by a combination of intimacy and commitment, but passion may be lacking |
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| the discipline that studies how people think about, influence, and relate to other people |
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Definition
| the set of factors that initiate and direct behavior, usually toward some goal |
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Definition
| psychological events involving (1) a physiological reaction usually arousal; (2) some kind of expressive reaction, such as a distinctive facial expression; and (3) some kind of subjective experience, such as the conscious feeling of being happy or sad |
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Definition
| an internal capacity or ability that accounts for individual differences in mental test performance and enables us to adapt to ever-changing environments |
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Definition
| the processes that underlie the mental manipulation of knowledge, usually in an attempt to reach a goal or solve a problem |
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