Subliminal Stimulation

Perception below conscious thresholds, subliminal messages.  unconsciously exposed to them.  have not been proven to result in a great deal of influence, if any

Absolute threshold

the minimum amount of energy or quantity of a stimulus required for it to be reliably detected at least 50% of the time it is presented.  Minimum amount of pressure, sound, light, or chemical required for detection

Top-down processing

occurs when prior knowledge and expectations guide what is perceived.  For example, walking into a crowded room to locate a friend because you have a face in mind, and that is how you know what to look for

Bottom-up processing

constructing a whole stimulus or concept from bits of raw sensory information.  Occurs when you encounter something that is unfamiliar or difficult to recognize (driving a car in a foreign country for the first time would engage bottom-up because you attempt to make sense of what different traffic signals and road signs mean

sensation

the process of detecting external events by sense organs and turning those events into neural signals.  at the sensory level, the sound of someone's voice is simply a noise, and the sight of a person is a combination of color and motion

Perception

involves attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli that we sense.  perception includes recognizing the sounds as a human voice and understanding that the colors, shape, and motion together make up the image of a human being

Feature detectors

The ability to detect certain types of stimuli, like movements, shape, and angles, requires specialized cells in the brain called feature detectors. Without these, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to detect a round object, like a baseball, hurdling toward you at 90 miles per hour.

pattern recognition

feature analysis

According to this theory, the sensory system breaks down the incoming stimuli into its features and processes the information. Some features may be more important for recognition than others. All stimuli have a set of distinctive features. Feature analysis proceeds through 4 stages.^{[citation needed]}

1. Detection
2. Pattern dissection
3. Feature comparison in memory
4. Recognition

prosopagnosia

a disorder of face perception where the ability to recognize faces is impaired, while other aspects of visual processing (e.g., object discrimination) and intellectual functioning (e.g., decision making) remain intact.

caused from damage to the fusiform area

transduction

the process in which physical or chemical stimulation is converted into a nerve impulse that is relayed to the brain

inattentional blindness

change blindness

a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus goes unnoticed by the observer. For example, an individual fails to notice a difference between two images that are identical except for one change.

mondegreens

the mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase as a result of near-homophony, in a way that gives it a new meaning. It most commonly is applied to a line in a poem or a lyric in a song

"very close veins" and "varicose veins"

gestalt

the individual parts of an image may have little meaning on their own, but hwen combined the whole takes on a significant, perceived form.

figure-ground principles

Gestalt principle that states that objects or "figures" in our environment tend to stand out against a background. 

grouping principles

a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to account for the observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects.

sensory adaptation

the reduction of activity in sensory receptors with repeated exposure to a stimulus. (ongoing sound of your neighbor's loud music or the sound of traffic noise outside is eventually experienced less intensely.

difference threshold

the smallest detectable difference between stimuli.   when you add salt to your food, for example, you are attempting to cross a difference threshold that your taste receptors can register

just noticeable difference

a detectable difference

signal detection theory

states that whether a stimulus is perceived depends on both sensory experience and judgment made by the subject.  two different processes: sensory process and decision process.  the experimenter presents a stimulur or no stimulus at all (sensory) and the subject is asked to report whether it was present (decision)

rods

photoreceptors that occupy peripheral regions of the retina; they are highly sensitive under low light levels

cones

photoreceptors that are sensitive to the different wavelengths of light that we perceive as color

fovea

the central region of the retina that contains the highest concentration of cones.  its functioning explains why objects in our direct line of vision are the clearest and most colorful relative to objects in the periphery

blind spot

a space in the retina that lacks photoreceptors

dark adaptation

the process by which the rods and cones become increasingly sensitive to light under low levels of illumination

retinal disparity

the difference in relative position of an object as seen by both eyes, which provides information to the brain about depth

monocular cues

depth cues that we can perceive with only one eye.  one such cue, called accomodation, takes place when the lens of your eye curves to allow you to focus on nearby objects

conduction hearing loss

results when any of the physical structures that conduct sound waves to the cochlea are damaged

sensorineural hearing loss

results from damage to the cochlear hair cells (sensory) and the neurons composing the auditory nerve (neural)

haptic perception

the active, exploratory aspect of touch sensation and perceptions.  active touch involves feedback, as in you run your hands along it and learn it

kinesthesis

the sense of bodily motion and position.  receptors for kinesthesis reside in the muscles, joints, and tendons

nociception

the activity of nerve pathways that respond to uncomfortable stimulation.  our skin, teeth, cornea, and internal organs contain nerve endings called nociceptors, which are receptors that initiate pain messages that travel to the central nervous system

olfaction

the sense of smell

gustation

the sense of taste

behaviorism

classical conditioning

learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus

Unconditioned response

a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.  in pavlov's experiment, meat powder elicited unconditioned salivation in his dogs

Unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning

 conditioned stimulus

a once neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response

the learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus.  after being repeatedly paired with the US, the once neutral tone in Pavlovs experiment became a conditioned stimulus because it elicited the conditioned response of salivation

respondent behavior

evokes a much faster and less thoughtful reaction. In that field, respondent conditioning is a synonym for classical conditioning/Pavlovian conditioning. Respondent behavior specifically refers to the behavior consistently elicited by a reflexive or classically conditioned stimulus.

acquisition

the initial phase of learning in which a response is established

extinction

the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together

spontaneous recovery

the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction

generalization

a process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to different, though similar stimuli

discrimination

occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus

Little Albert

boy was presented with a white rat and showed no fear.  scientists then struck a piece of metal with a hammer to startle the kid.  the kid associated the rat with the loud startle and quickly learned to fear the rat

Thorndike's puzzle box

Law of Effect

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is influenced by consequences. (think parenting)

reinforcement

a process in which an event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occuring again

reinforcer

a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that increases the probability tof that response occurring again

punishment

a process that decreases the future probability of a response

punisher

a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that results in a decrease in behavior

primary reinforcers

consist of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs (water, food, shelter, sex)

secondary reinforcers

consist of reinforcing stimuli that acquire their value through learning (a paycheck, money, smile)

positive reinforcement

the strengthening of behavior after potential reinforcers such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behavior

negative reinforcement

involves the strengthening of a behavior because it removes or diminishes a stimulus

avoidance learning

a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur (learning to take a detour to avoid traffic congestion and paying bills on time to avoid late fees)

escape learning

occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present. (covering your ears upon hearing loud music.  you cant aboid the music because it is already present, so you escape the aversive stimulus

continuous reinforcement

every response made results in reinforcement (vending machines deliver a snack every time the correct amount of money is deposited)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available. there are 4 types of partial reinforcement schedules: 1) fixed-ratio schedule, 2) variable-ratio schedule, 3) fixed-interval schedule, 4) variable-interval schedule

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed.  for instance, a rat may be required to press a leber 10 times to receive food.  similarly, an employee working on commission may receive a bonus only after selling a specific number of items

variable-ratio schedule

fixed-interval schedule

 variable-interval schedule

shaping

a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response.  shaping is done in step-by-step fashion until the desired response is learned

extinction

refers to the weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available.  if you lose your internet connection, you will probably stop trying to refresh your web browser because there is no reinforcement for doing so -- the behavior will be extinguished

cognitive maps

a type of mental processing composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual can acquire, code, store, recall, and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment.

latent learning

learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced for doing so

observational learning

involves changes in behavior and knowledge that result from watching others

partial reinforcement effect

refers to a phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement. 

imitation

recreating a motor behavior or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal.  fmor a very young age, infants imitate the facial expressions of adults

temperament

general emotional reactivity, which is regarded as the root from which several aspects of adult personality grow.  high-reacive infants tend to show vigorous activity of their limbs, back arching, and crying when confronted with unfamiliar stimuli.  low-reactive infants show less motor activity and less distress when exposed to unfamiliar stimuli.

schema

a cluster of knowledge that constitutes one's knowledge about events, objects, and ideas

assimilation

children add new information, but interpret it based on what they already know.  a young child who is familiar with only the family's pet chihuahua might develop a concept that all dogs are furry creatures that stand less than a foot tall

accommodation

occurs when children modify their belief structures based on experience.  then this child encounters a great dane, she might first refer to it as horse, but will eventually correctly accommodate the great dane into her concept of what a dog is

Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

1) Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

2) Preoperational (2-7 years)

3) Concrete operational (7-11 years)

4) Formal operational (11 years-adulthood)

sensorimotor stage

 (0-2 years)

cognitive experience is based on direct, sensory experience with the world as well as motor movements that allow infants to interact with the world.  object permanence is the significant developmental milestone o fthis stage

piaget: preoperational stage of cognitive development

 (2-7 years)

thinking moves beyond the immediate appearance of objects.  child understands physical conservation and that symbols, language, and drawings can be used to represent ideas.

concrete operational stage

(7-11 years)

the ability to perform mental transformations for objects that are physically present emerges.  thinking becomes logical and organized

formal operational stage

(11 years-adulthood)

the capacity for abstract and hypothetical thinking develops. scientific reasoning and thinking becomes possible

object permanence

the ability to understand that objects exist even when they cannot be seen or touched, a major milestone of cognitive development

theory of mind

the ability to recognize the thoughts, beliefs, and expectations of others, and to understand that these can be different from one's own

conservation

egocentrism

Harlow's baby monkey study

infant monkeys spent more time iwth the cloth "mother" even though the wire "mother" was the one that dispensed food.  it shows that physical contact, rather than food, formed the basis for mother-infant bonding

attachment

an enduring emotional bond formed between individuals.  there are 4 different styles of attachment: 1) secure attachment, 2) disorganized insecure attachment, 3) resistant insecure attachment, 4) avoidant insecure attachment

secure attachment

the caregiver is a base that the child uses as he or she explores.  in the strange situation, the child plays comfortable while the moher is in the room.  the child may or may not cry when the mother leaves, and seeks contact with her upon returning.

disorganized insecure attachment

the child does not have a consistent pattern of behavior either when the mother leaves or when she returns.  the child might freeze for a moment, seemingly unsure of what to do next

resistant insecure attachment

the child is upset when the mother leaves, but is angry when she returns

avoidant insecure attachment

the child is not upset when the mother leaves, and does not seek contact when she returns

authoritative parenting

characterized by the expression of warmth and responsiveness to the needs of children, but also by exercising control over certain actions and decisions made by children

authoritarian parenting

emphasizes excessive control over children and less expression of warmth

indulgent-permissive parenting

warm but indifferent and do not attempt to control their children, even in positive and helpful ways

indifferent-uninvolved parenting

show neither warmth nor control toward their children

moral intuition

an inherent quality found in humans that tell them what is wrong from right

trolley and footbridge dillemas

The general form of the problem is this: Person A can take an action which would benefit many people, but in doing so, person B would be unfairly harmed. Under what circumstances would it be morally just for Person A to violate Person B's rights in order to benefit the group?

Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning

1) Preconventional morality

2) Conventional morality

3) Postconventional morality

Preconventional morality

characterized by self-interest in seeking reward or avoiding punishment.  preconventional morality is considered a very basic and egocentric form of moral reasoning. 

Trolley: "i would not flip the trolley track switch because i would get in trouble"

conventional morality

regards social conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behavior.  directives from parents, teachers, and the law are used as guidelines for moral behavior

trolley: "i would not flip the switch.  it is illegal to kill, and if i willfully intervened i would have probably violated the law"

postconventional morality

considers rules and laws as relative.  right and wrong are determined by more abstract principles of justice and rights.

trolley: "i would flip the switch.  the value of five lives exceeds that of one, and saving them is for the greater good of society"

heinz dillema

cross-sectional design

used to measure and compare samples of people at different ages at a given point in time.  imagine you are designing a study examining the effects of premature birth on learning and thinking abilities from infancy through adulthood.  you could use groups of 1-, 5-, 10-, and 20-year olds who were born prematurely

longitudinal design

follows the development of the same set of individuals through time.  you might identify a set of 50 infants and measure their cognitive development annually over the course of 20 years (same group)

cohort effects

consequences of being born in a particular year or narrow range of years.  differences across age cohorts can be due to numerous factors, including societal, nutritional, medical, and many other influences on both physical and behavioral development

sensitive period

stages of prenatal development

germinal: 0 to 2 weeks, migration of the blastocyst from the fallopian tubes and its implantation in the uterus.  cellular divisions take place that eventually lead to multiple organ, nervous system, and skin tissues

embryonic: 2 to 8 weeks, stage in which basic cell layers become differentiated.  major structures such as the head, heart, limbs, hands, and feet emerge.  the embryo attaches to the placenta, the structure that allows for the exchange of oxygen and nutrients and the removal of wastes. 

fetal stage: 8 weeks to birth, brain development progresses as distinct regions take form.  the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and other bodily systems develop.  sex organs appear at around the third month of gestation

teratogen

a substance, such as a drug, that is capable of producing physical defects.  these defects typically appear at birth or shortly after.  because of this risk, expectant mothers who take certain medications are advised to stop taking the medication at some point during pregnancy

motor skills development stages

1) raising the head

2) rolling over

3) propping up

4) sitting up

5) crawling

6) walking

synaptic pruning

the loss of weak nerve cell connections, accelerates during brain development through infancy. increases brain funcitonality by strengthening needed connections between nerve cells and weeding out unnecessary ones

synaptogenesis

the formation of billions of new synapses, occurs at blinding speed through infancy and childhood, and continues through the life span

habituation

refers to a decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event, something infants are well known for doing.  for example, if an infant views the same stimulus or event over and over, she will stop looking at it.  in this case, the habituated response is time spent looking at the event.

scaffolding

the approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learner or student's needs. basially the teacher provides the student with some guidance in order to learn the new skill

identity statuses

the processes and outcomes of identity development that include elements of both crisis and personal commitment

identity achievement: consideration of different identities, followed by commitment to a particular one

identity diffusion: a reluctance or refusal to commit to an identity and respond to identity crises

identity foreclosure: a situation in which adolescents do not experience identity crises and commit to the roles and values that are handed down by their parents

identity moratorium: prolonged experimentation with different identities.  this can involve delaying commitment to a single identity and frequent identity crises

sociometric popularity

individuals who are well known and respected, and who display low levels of aggression.  these adolescents may participate in high-status activities such as athletics or cheerleading, but their participation does not translate into aggression toward lower-status individuals

perceived popularity

adolescents who are perceived as popular and may be more well known than sociometrically popular people, but are not necessarily well liked and are more prone to engage in verbally and physically aggressive ways