Chromosome

Structure that carries genetic information.

Made up of Chromatin. 

Structure located in the nucleus.

Produce ribosomes.

[ER] Two regions:

1. Rough ER- looks rough because bound ribosomes. Carbohydrates get added to proteins here. 

2. Smooth ER- produce lipids, oils, steroids, and phospholipids. Play part on metabolism of carbohydrates, and detox of drugs & poisons

Part of the cytoskeleton.

Thickest fiber of cytoskeleton.

Hollow rods made up of Tubulin.

Provide tracks for organelles to travel from the center of the cell outwards. 

Very unstable (dynamic instability)

Grow out from Centrosome.

 Motor protein-kinesin.

Structure near nucleus.

Considered to be a microtubule-organizing center.

Appear as tiny hairs or bristles on the surface of cells.

Actin Filaments

(Microfilaments)

Work together to support and structure the plasma membrane.

Found near cell membrane in area called cell cortex.

Thinnest of the cytoskeleton fibers.

Make up nuclear lamina.

Tensile strength (reason skin stays intact).

Attach to neighboring cells at junctions called desmosomes.  

Supportive structure that surrounds plant cells, prokaryotic cells, fungi, and some protists.

Not in animal cells.

Membranes of neighboring cells are fused together.

Seal cells together.

Fasten cells together into strong sheets, like rivets.

Connect the cytoskeletons of cells.

Provide cytoplasmic channels between cells.

Move from high to low concentration.

Goes directly across plasma membrane.

Non polar molecules (lipids, oils, steroids) and gas (CO2 & O2).

Same as Passive Transport.

Facilitated Diffusion

Movement from HI to LO  through transport proteins.

Channels and Carriers.

Small polar molecules (monosaccherides, amino acids, nucleotides), ions, and water. 

From LO to HI (against concentration gradient).

Costs energy. 

Transport proteins called pumps.

Small polar molecules (monosaccherides, amino acids, nucleotides), ions, and water. 

Vesicular Transport

Uses exocytosis & endocytosis to transport large molecules (polysaccherides & proteins) across the plasma membrane.

Costs energy.

Uses vesicles.

Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer often completely spanning the membrane.

Loosely bound to the surface of the membrane, often to integral proteins.

Relay hormonal messages to the cell.

(Signal transduction)

Allow other proteins to attach cells to their neighbors or to components of the ECM.

(Cell-cell recognition, Intercellular joining, Attachment to the cytoskeleton & ECM)

Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of steps to form a product.

A specific enzyme catalyzes each step.

release energy by breaking molecules down into simpler compounds.

energy released becomes available to do the work of the cell, or stored and then used to drive uphill reactions of anabolic pathways. 

Also called biosynthetic pathways.

Consume energy to build molecules from simpler compounds. 

Associated with an object's motion.

Heat, light, and electricity are types. 

Energy due to its location or structure.

Chemical energy is this type of energy because the arrangement of their atoms. 

Study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.

First law states: Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created nor distroyed. 

Second law states: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe. 

Does not need energy.

Releases energy.

(Hydrolysis)

Negative Delta G

Catabolism.

Exergonic.

Requires energy.

(Dehydration)

Positive delta G

Anabolism.

Endergonic.

Gproducts-Greactants=DeltaG

G= amount of energy (G for the last name Gibbs).

A nucleotide triphosphate consisting of the sugar ribose, the nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of 3 phosphate groups.

3 Phosphate groups are responsible for energy because they repel eachother, eventually breaking off an inorganic phosphate (Pi), producing ADP.

Responsible for most energy coupling in cells.

ATP+H2O  -->  ADP+Pi

Highly exergonic reaction.

ATP and H2O

Have high energy compared to the energy of the products.

Endergonic process.

ADP+Pi  -->  ATP+H2O

Catabolic pathways, especially cellular respiration, provide the energy for the endergonic regeneration of ATP. 

macromolecule that acts as a catalyst by speeding up the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

Substrate specific. (because of 3d shape due to its amino acid sequence)

Usually refer to proteins.

Optimal temp for human enzymes=about 35-40 degrees celcius.Optimal pH=6-8for most enzymes.

The kick of energy needed in order for the reaction to begin.

Symbolized as EA

The amount of energy necessary to push the reactants over an energy barrier so that the downhill part of the reaction can begin.

In many cases, it is supplied in the form of heat that the reactants absorb from their surroundings.

the reactant that the enzyme acts on.

When the enzyme binds to this reactant, an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. 

RNA based enzyme.

probably much older than other enzymes.

a pocket or groove on the surface of the protein where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs.

usually formed by only a few amino acids. 

The shape is determined by the rest of the protein molecules framework.

It is NOT rigid.

When substrates enter active site, enzyme changes shape so that its active site enfolds the substrates.

Low concentration-an increase in substrate concentration speeds binding to available active sites. (Lots of customers come in and spend lots of money which converts lots of money to groceries).

High concentration-the active sites on all enzymes are engaged. (There is maximum amount of customers and groceries run out, maximum amount of money is made for this max amount of customers). This means that the enzyme is saturated and the only way to increase productivity is by adding more enzymes.

nonprotein helpers that bind permanently or reversibly to the enzyme.

inorganic.

(Zinc, iron, and copper in ionic form.)

NAD+

organic cofactors.

(vitamins)

prevent enzymes from catalyzing reactions.

If attached to the enzyme by covalent bonds, it is irreversible. 

If attached by weak bonds, it is reversible.

block enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the molecule.

This binding by the inhibitor causes the enzyme to change shape, making it less effective at catalyzing reactions.

Site in which the product binds on an enzyme to change the shape of it so substrates can no longer bind.

Much like thermostat

catabolic process in which oxygen is used as a reactant to complete the breakdown of organic molecules.

used by most eukaryotic and many prokaryotic cells.

Food is the fuel for respiration. The exhaust is carbon dioxide and water.

C6H12O6+6O2  -->  6CO2+6H2O+energy

Catabolic process in which compounds other than oxygen are used as reactants.

Used by some prokaryotes.

Pair of reactions: REDuction and OXidation.

Reactions that result in the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another . 

Release energy when electrons move closer to electronegative atoms. 

Catabolic pathways transfer electrons stored in food molecules, releasing energy that is used to synthesize ATP.

When a molecule looses an electron.

Is a reducing agent.

Donor.

When a molecule gains an electron.

It is an oxidizing agent.

Acceptor.

process of oxidizing glucose to obtain energy in the form of ATP.

1.Food molecules (glucose) are oxidized, giving up electrons from their C-H bonds. 

2. Electrons passed to more electronegative molecules. This transfer caused the electrons to release some of their potential energy (exergonic reaction)

3. The cell couples exergonic process to endergonic process to produce ATP.

less stable because they are balancing.

More potential energy.

C-H Bonds

Carbohydrates and Lipids are rich in C-H bonds and therefore have large amounts of potential energy.

These molecules aren't burned up right away because of the barrier of activation energy. Inside cells however, enzymes lower the barrier of activation energy, allowing sugar to the oxidized in a series of steps (bleeds energy off slowly)

more stable because it is not balancing.

Less potential energy.

O-C bond

Takes place in cytosol.

Begins oxidation of glucose by breaking glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate.

Takes place in mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells or in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

Finishes the breakdown of glucose.

Third stage of respiration.

NADH delivers electrons, and ATP is produced.

Takes place on inner membrane of mitochondrion.

Mode of ATP synthesis that is powered by the electron transport chain. Two processes make up Oxidatitive Phosphorylation:Electron transport chain and Chemiosmosis. Takes place in inner membrane of mitochondrion.

Produces 90% of ATP generated by respiration.

an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from an organic substrate molecule to ADP, forming ATP.

Pi+ADP=ATP

PROS: Makes ATP quickly, does not reqire oxygen so it can take place in aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

CONS:Not very efficient (b/c only makes one ATP at a time)

End result of Gylcolysis.

Consists of two 3 carbon molecules