from 2.7 to 2.2 BYA; 

(1)posed a challenge for life

(2)provided an opportunity to gain energy from light

(3) allowed organisms to exploit new ecosystems

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY

SERIAL ENDOSYMBIOSIS

(1)similarites in inner membrane structures and functions

(2)division is similar in these organelles & some prokaryotes

(3)these organelles transcribe and translate their own DNA

(4) their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes

CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION

500 MYA

Plants and Fungi

(symbiotic relationship)

WHAT ARE THE MOST WIDESPREAD AND DIVERSE LAND ANIMALS?

Arthropods and tetrapods

WHAT GROUP EVOLVED FROM LOBE- FINNED FISHES AROUND 365 MYA?

Tetrapods

WHAT DID THE FIRST FOREST CONSIST OF AND WHY?

Lycophytes; because they thrive in moist, warm climates and that was what the Earth was like at that time

• a reduction in shallow water habitat
• a colder &drier climate inland
• changes in climate as continents moved toward &away from the poles
• changes in ocean circulation patterns leading to global cooling

WHAT GAS WAS NATURALLY MORE ABUNDANT ON EARTH?

CO2

WHAT DID THE BREAK UP OF PANGAEA LEAD TO ?

Allopatric Speciation

WHAT DOES THE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS REFLECT?

The movement of continental drift

Mass Extinctions

2 BEST KNOWN EXTINCTIONS:

• Permian - 251 MYA; mass volcanic eruption in Siberia
• Cretaceous- dinosaurs killed by extra terrestrial body; 65.5 MYA

CRETACEOUS MASS EXTINCTION 65.5 MYA SEPERATES WHICH 2 ERAS?

Mesozoic & Cenozoic

Ecological Niches (jobs)

WHAT CAN MASS EXTINCTIONS PAVE THE WAY FOR?

Adaptive Radiations

ADAPTIVE RADIATION

is the evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor upon introduction to new environmental opportunites

(ex) the disapperance of dinosaurs allowed for the expansion of mammals in diversity & size

HETEROCHRONY

an evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events

HOMEOTIC GENES

HOX GENES

• class of homeotic genes that provide positional info during development
• if they are expressed in the wrong location, body parts can be produced in thw wrong location

TAXONOMY

the ordered division and naming of organisms

PHYLOGENY

evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

SYSTEMATICS

classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships; ues fossils, moleculare and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships

PHYLOGENETIC TREE

evolutionary relationships depicted using systematics

BRANCH POINT

represents the divergence of 2 species

SISTER TAXA

groups that share an immediate common ancestor

TAXON

any named group at any level

POLYTOMY

a branch from which more than 2 groups emerge

WHAT CAN AND CANNOT BE LEARNED FROM PHYLOGENETIC TREES

• do show patterns of descent
• do not necessarily indicate when species evolved or howm uch genetic change occured in a lineage
• shouldnt be assumed that a taxon evolved from the taxon next to it

HOMOLOGY

similarity due to shared ancestry

ANALOGY

similarity due to convergent evolution

HOMOLOGOUS CHARACTERISTICS ARE USED FOR...

phylogenies

THE MORE COMPLEX 2 SIMILIAR STRUCTURES ARE, THE MORE LIKELY IT IS THAT THEY ARE _____________?

homologous

HOMOPLASIES

analogous structures or molecular sequences that evolved independently

CLADISTICS

groups organisms by common descent

CLADE

a group of species that includes ancesteral species and all its descendants

yes, but not all groupings of organisms qualify as clades

MOLECULAR SYSTEMATICS

use DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships; DNA, RNA & proteins

% SEQUENCE DIVERGENCE

0-100;

the higher the number, the more distantly related the organism is

MONOPHYLETIC

a valid clade that signifies that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendants

PARAPHYLETIC

grouping that consists of an ancesteral species and some, but not all, of the descendants

POLYPHYLETIC

grouping that consists various species that lack a common ancestor

SHARED ANCESTERAL CHARACTERISTIC

(aka primitive trait) is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

SHARED DERIVED CHARACTER

(aka Synapomorphy)

evolutionary novelty observed in a particular clade and not observed in other clades

CAN A CHARACTER BE BOTH ANCESTERAL AND DERIVED?

yes, depending on the content

OUTGROUP

a species or group of speces that is closely related to but not a member of

critical to phylogenies

INGROUP

the various species being studied

WHY DO SYSTEMATICS COMPARE EACH INGROUP SPECIESWITH THE OUTGROUP SPECIES?

to differentiate between shared derived and shared ancesteral characteristics

no, they will be shared with the ingroup but not with the outgroup

ancesteral characters that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor

reflect that number of genetic changes that have taken place in particular DNA sequence in that lineage

OR

branch length can represent chronological time and branching points can be determined from the fossil record

MAXIMUM PARSIMONY

• assumes that the tree requires the fewest evolutionary events (apperance of shared derived characters) is the most likely
• related to the idea of Occam's Razor

MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD

states that, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of eveolutionary events

• takes all changes of DNA into account

FOR MORE THAN THE FIRST 3 BILLION YEARS OF EARTH'S HISTORY THE TERRESTRIAL SURFACE WAS LIFELESS...

• since colonizing land, plants have diversified into roughly 290,000 living species
• plants provide habitat, nutrition, O2
• they are also a "CO2 sink"

LAND PLANTS EVOLVED FROM?

green algae; charophytes are the closest relatives

1.rosette- shaped complexes for cellulose synthesis

• proteins that make cell wall in a circle

2. Peroxisome enzymes(organelle that plants use to deoxyify H2O2-hydrogen perioxide)

• minimize photorespiration

3. STRUCTURE OF FLAGELLATED SPERM

4. formation of a phragmoplast

(eventually becomes the cell wall)

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHAROPHYTES

• sporopollenin( a durable polymer) prevents zygote from drying out
• sporopollenin is the same material found in the cell walls of plant spores

5 KEY TRAITS IN NEARLY ALL LAND PLANTS BUT ARE ABSENT IN CHAROPHYTES:

1. Apical meristems
2. Alternation of generations
3. walled spores produced in multicellular sporangia
4. multicellular gametangia
5. multicellular dependent embryos

1. APICAL MERISTEMS

• localized regions of cell division at the tips of shoots anr roots
• allows the plant to grow continuously throughout its life
• only in land plants

2. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

[image] 

both multicellular

(multicellular haploid & multicellular diploid)

3.WALLED SPORES PRODUCED IN MULTICELLULAR SPORANGIA

• outer layer protects
• sporangia produces spores through meiosis

4. MULTICELLULAR GAMETANGIA

produce gametes; part og the gametophyte

5. MULTICELLULAR, DEPENDENT EMBRYOS

• embryos depeds on parental cells for nutrition
• in land plants and not in algae

ADDITIONAL DERIVED TRAITS OF LAND PLANTS

• waxy cuticle
• secondary chemical compounds
• (compounds with bitter taste, strong odor or toxic effects that defend against herbovores and parasites)

2 PRIMARY WAYS OF NUTRITION OF PLANTS

1. cellular respirations

2. photosynthesis

ORGIN OF ___________ __________ WHEN PANGEA CAME TOGETHER 360 MYA

vascular plants

HOW MANY YEARS AGO DID EARTH FORM?

4.6 BYA

Water Vapor

( nitrogen, nitrogen oxides , carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide)

"FREE OXYGEN"

O2

A. I. OPARIN & J.B.S. HALDANE

hypothesized that the early atmosphere was a reducing environment.. they got amino acids and nucleotides ( DNA & RNA) in their experiments

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROCESSESS ON EARLY EARTH MAY HAVE PRODUCED VERY SIMPLE CELLS THROUGH A SEQUENCE OF STAGES:

1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules

the 1st organic compounds may have been sythesized near submerged volcanoes and deep sea vents

* amino acids have also been found in meteorites in 1969

2. joining of these small molecules into macromolecules

small organic molecules polymerize when they are concentrated on hot sand, clay or rock

3. Packaging of molecules into "protobionts"

- aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane or membrane- like structure

4. orgin of self- replicating molecules

- RNA molecules called ribozymes have been found to catalyze many different reactions

- example: ribozymes can make complementary copies of short stretches of their own sequence or other short pieces of RNA

• membrane of liposomes
• made up of phospolipids
• organize in aquaeous solution

CHARACTERISITICS OF LIFE:

• metabolism
• replication

EARLY DESENT WITH MODIFICATION LEADS TO...

evolution

EARLY PROTOBIONTS WITH SELF- REPLICATING, CATALYTIC RNA WOULD HAVE BEEN...

more effective at using resources ad would have increased in number through natural selection

EARLY GENETIC MATERIAL FORMED A..

"RNA world"

PALEOBIOLOGY

study of fossil record and past environments

FOSSIL RECORD REVEALS CHANGES IN..

the history of life on earth

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

deposited in layers called strata and are the richest source of fossils

RADIOMETRIC DATING

•  determines the absolute ages of fossils
• a "parent" isotope decays a "daughter" isotope at a constant rate
• each isotope has a known half- life, the time required for half the parent isotope to decay

WHAT ARE GOOD ROCKS TO FIND FOSSILS IN?

sedimentary, shale, limestone, sandstone, siltstone

THE FOSSIL RECORD IS BIASED IN FAVOR OF SPECIES THAT :

• exsisted for a long time
• were abundant and widespread
• had hard parts

CARBON-14 CAN ONLY BE USED TO DATE FOSSILS THAT ARE...

75,000 years old

MAGNETISIM IN ROCKS

provide dating info by the orientation of iron in rocks

CARBON-14 CONVERTS INTO...?

Nitrogen- 14

THE STUDY OF FUNGI IS CALLED...?

mycology

SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES WHY FUNGI ARE NO LONGER INCLUDED IN THE PLANT KINGDOM...

• fungi are heterotrophs
• fungi have filamentous bodies
• fungi have cell walls made up of chitin(like crabs)

ARE FUNGI MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO PLANTS OR ANIMALS?

animals

WHY ARE FUNGI ESSENTIAL TO TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS?

they break down organic material and recycle nutrients

WHAT ELEMENTS DO FUNGI MAKE MORE AVALIABLE FOR PLANTS?

carbon & phosporous

MYCELIUM

whole mass of "spider like" hyphae

SEPTATE HYPHAE

COENOCYTIC HYPHAE

lack septa; no seperations; don't go through cytokinesis

ARMILLARIA OSTOYAE SP.

worlds oldest, largest, heaviest species;

BODY OF A FUNGI PRODUCES..?

spores

HOW DO FUNGI FEED?

fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption

WHAT ENZYMES DO FUNGI SECRETE TO BREAK DOWN COMPLEX MOLECULES?

exoenzymes

(enzymes on the outside)

HOW DO FUNGI ABSORB MATERIALS?

through the hyphae

ABSORPTIVE HETEROTROPHS

feed by absorption

ENDOSYMBIOTIC HYPHAE

photosyntesis from plants makes glucose for fungi and plant receives carbon and organic nutrients from fungi

MYCORRHIZAE

refers to any mutually benefitial relationship between fungi and plants

ARBUSCULAR HYPHAE

grow right through the cell wall but not through the cell membrane

ECTOMYCORRHIZAL HYPHAE

dont go through the cell wall but go through the intercellular spaces

HOW TO FUNGI REPRODUCE?

• asexual and sexual life cycles
• some only produce sexually and some can only produce asexually
• some can do both; when conditions are bad they reproduce sexually to have more genetic variation and when conditions are good they reproduce asexually

YEASTS REPRODUCE BY..?

budding

MOST FUNGI THAT ARE PATHOGENS ARE PATHOGENIC TO...?

plants