Term
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Definition
| Aristotle, Locke, and Hume theorized that we learn by |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes in behavior and/or thought in response to experience |
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Term
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Definition
| animals and humans need to adapt to their environments |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of learning associations |
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Term
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Definition
| associating a response (a behavior we perform) with its consequences (rewards or punishment for that behavior) |
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Term
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Definition
| learning a behavior just by watching it performed |
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Term
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Definition
| type of learning that separates humans from animals |
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Term
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| the stimulus that triggers the UR (e.g.the food) |
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Term
| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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Definition
| unlearned response to a stimulus (e.g.salivating) |
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Term
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| the stimulus that triggers the response after learning (e.g.bell) |
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Term
| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Definition
| learned response to a stimulus that otherwise would not cause the behavior (e.g. salivating upon hearing the bell) |
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Term
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Definition
initial learning of the association
ex) timing- the US and CS need to be presented closely together in time
Order- the CS must come before the US |
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Term
| Conditioning is adaptive for |
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Definition
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Term
| Higher-order conditioning |
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Definition
a new neutral stimulus becomes a new CS
ex) when a new neatrual stimulus becomes associated with the previous CS it can be weaker that the first-order conditioning |
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Term
| EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING |
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Definition
US-hot water
UR- flinch/jump back
CS- the sound of a toilet flusing
CR- flinch/jump back in response to the sound of the toilet |
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Term
| EXAMPLES OF HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING |
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Definition
US (a specific dog bites you) - UR (fear)
CS, hearing a dog bark--CS, seeing a dog--US, the dog bite--CR, fear |
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Term
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Definition
responding to stimuli that are similar to the CS
ex) a dog salivating when it hears bells that sound like the bell it had been conditioned with |
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Term
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Definition
Responding only to the specific stimulus used for conditioning
teaching the dog to salivate to a specific bell-
fear response when seeing the type of dog that bit you but not fearing other types |
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Term
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Definition
when the CR lessens or goes away
If you repeatedly present the CS without the US, eventually the CR will go away
Ex) ring a bell (CS) many times w/o food (US) the dog stops salivating to bell (CR) |
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Term
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Definition
when the CR spontaneously reappears
if you extinguish a behavior, then wait a few hours:
ring the bell (CS) and the dog will salivate again (CR) the CR may be weaker than before |
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Term
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Definition
| Animals can learn the predictability of an event |
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Term
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Definition
| we learn associations that are relevant to something that was adaptive in our evolutionary history. Ex) Sex and the color Red |
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Term
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Definition
| involves associating your own behavior with the outcome of the behavior |
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Term
| Key difference in operant and classical conditioning |
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Definition
classical conditioning the organism has NO CONTROL
in operant conditioning the organism does have CONTROL |
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Term
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Definition
| Thornidke's theory that rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated |
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Term
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Definition
the "operant chamber" which was used to teach animals new behaviors
ex) taught penguins to walk in figure 8, play ping pong, keep missiles on target by pecking a target on a screen, etc |
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Term
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Definition
| reinforcers are used to guide behavior towards a goal behavior |
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Term
|
Definition
any event that increases the frequency of a behavior
-it can be tangible, intangible, or an activity |
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Term
|
Definition
| vary from person to person because what motivates one person may not motivate another |
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Term
|
Definition
Positive- provides stimulus in response to a behavior
negative- removing a stimulus in response to a behavior
primary- unlearned stimuli
conditioned- learned through association with primary reinforcers |
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Term
| Two types of reinforcement schedules |
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Definition
conintuous- everytime you do the behavior, you get the reinforcers
partial(intermittent)-sometimes when you do the behavior you get the reinforcer but not always |
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Term
|
Definition
| slower if reinforcement is continuous |
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Term
| Partial Reinforcement can includes |
|
Definition
fixed ratio- reinforcer is given after a set number of behaviors
variable ratio- rienforcer is given after an unknown number of behaviors
fixed interval- first response is reinforced after a set time period |
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Term
Rewards tell you
punishment tells you |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
Punished behaviors are NOT forgotten
punishment teaches discrimination
...teaches fear
physical punishment can increase aggressiveness |
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Term
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Definition
| learning the mazes only becomes apparent when you introduce a reward to demonstrate it |
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Term
|
Definition
| desire to perform a behavior for external reward or to avoid punishment |
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Term
|
Definition
| desire to perform a behavior for its own sake |
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Term
| Applications of Operant Conditioning |
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Definition
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Term
| Classical and Operant conditioning is constrained by |
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Definition
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Term
| Ways of Conditioning Yourself |
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Definition
1. state a goal
2. monitor how often ou engage in the desired behavior
3. reinforce the desired behavior
4. reduce the rewards gradually |
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Term
| Classical Conditioning is |
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Definition
learned association between events
US causes the UR without learning
pairing CS with US causes CR |
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Term
|
Definition
learned associations between behaviors and outcomes
reinforcers and punishments |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which we learn from observation and imitation of others |
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Term
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Definition
| neurons in the brain that are activated both when we are doing a task AND when we are only watching another organism do a task |
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Term
Infants at 8 months
at 12 months
at 14 months |
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Definition
imitate novel gestures
look where someone else is looking(joint attention)
imitate actions seen on tv |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to feel empathy for another by inferrring their state of mind |
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Term
|
Definition
| initate actions as weel as infer the state of mind of another person (Feel empathy) |
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Term
| two applications of obserational learning |
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Definition
prosocial effects--if you want your child to read, you read to them
Antisocial effects --abusive or agressive parents often produce abusive/aggressive children |
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Term
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Definition
| leaning that persists over time |
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Term
| In order to remember we must |
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Definition
|
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Term
| According to Atkinson ans Shiffrin we have 3 types of memory |
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Definition
Sensory:
Short-term:
Long-term: |
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Term
|
Definition
unlimited capacity
limited duration
iconic=visual
echoic= auditory
haptic= touch |
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Term
|
Definition
limited capacity
longer duration that sensory |
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Term
|
Definition
unlimited capacity
unlimited duration |
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Term
|
Definition
| we process some things unconsciously, but most things require attention to be encoded into memory |
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Term
| 4 types of automatic processing |
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Definition
We automaticially process info about...
space-spatical relations amongst objects
time- the sequence of events
how often something happens
well-learned info- read becauase reading is a well-learned skill |
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Term
| Effortful Processing includes |
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Definition
rehersal- conscious repetition of new info
Ebbinghaus- studied memory for nonsense syllabus |
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Term
| We obtain______ info ______with distributed practice than with mass practie |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| rehearsing the information at several points in time |
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Term
|
Definition
| rehearsing information once (i.e. cramming before an exam) |
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Term
| Memory is always better if |
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Definition
encoding is ACTIVE
(i.e. testing yourself rather than just reading information) |
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Term
| Repeated testing overtime |
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Definition
| increases memory for the information |
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Term
|
Definition
the tendency to remember things at the beginning and end of lists better than the info in the middle
Primacy Effect-tendency to remember the first item
Recency effect-tendency to remember the last item |
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Term
|
Definition
| how deeply you process info affects how well you remember it later |
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Term
| We process information by |
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Definition
encoding meaning
encoding images
mentally organizing it |
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Term
| Verbal information can be encoded: |
|
Definition
visually
acoustically
semantically |
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Term
|
Definition
| is the deeper form of processing for verbal information |
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Term
| Craik & Tulvings tests of verbal information |
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Definition
1. Is the work in capitol letters?
(visual)
2. Does the work ryhme with train?
(acoustic)
3. would the word fit in the sentence?
(semantic) |
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Term
| How much we remember depends on: |
|
Definition
how long we take to learn it
how meaningful we make it |
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Term
|
Definition
| you remember more information if it relates to you than if it relates to someone else |
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Term
| Ways of organizing to encode |
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Definition
Chunking- making meaninful groups out of individual peices of info
Hierarchies-nested categories
Mnemonics- systems for remembering large amounts on info |
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Term
| Our earliest memories usually |
|
Definition
involve visual memory
because mental pictures are relatively easy to remember |
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Term
|
Definition
| remembering only the most pleasant aspects of an experience |
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Term
|
Definition
Peg-word system--memorizing a jingle
method of Loci--attaching info to locations in a well-known space |
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Term
| Types of memory differ on: |
|
Definition
how long they last(duration)
and How much they can hold up (capacity) |
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Term
| 4 branches of working memory |
|
Definition
central executive
visouspatial sketchpad
Phonological Loop
Episodic buffer |
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Term
|
Definition
information in the immediate enviornemy
also gets info from your long-term memory to help it do this |
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Term
| Working memory tasks include: |
|
Definition
digit span
letter span
non-word repetition
size judgement |
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Term
| things that hurt memory for lists |
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Definition
Phonological similarity
word length
articulatory suppression |
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Term
| things that help memory for lists |
|
Definition
Primacy and Recency
Von Restorff-anything that is distinctive from the rest of the list is easier to remember
semantic groupings |
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Term
|
Definition
| is a neurologically based condition in which stimulation of one sensroy or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sesory or cognitive pathway |
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Term
| two types of longterm memory |
|
Definition
explicit--conscious recall
implicit--without conscious recall |
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Term
|
Definition
processed in the hippocampus
Branch to...Facts and Personality |
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Term
|
Definition
processed by other brain areas including cerrebelum
Branch to...skills and classical conditioning |
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Term
| We do NOT store memories in specific discreate locations |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| short-term memory is maintained with |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| long term memory causes changes in |
|
Definition
| the structures and function of the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
Longterm potention
repeated stimulation of neaural pathway causes changes to that pathway |
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Term
LPT can make sending neaurons
LPT can make recieving neurons |
|
Definition
more sensitive--they need less prompting to release neurotransmitter
more sensitive--more receptors to b ind with neurotransmitters |
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Term
|
Definition
| Drugs that block LTP interfer with learning and preservation erase recent memories |
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Term
|
Definition
boost CREB protein production
boost Glutamate |
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Term
|
Definition
| clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
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Term
|
Definition
make more flucose available to the breain and with more enery, the brain is more active
Amygdala-emotion center of the brain; boosts brain activity and available protien |
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Term
| Explicit or declarative memory is |
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Definition
| things we can talk about and are aware of |
|
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Term
| implicit or non-declarative memory are |
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Definition
| things we can do but not necessarily explain; we are not aware of having learned them |
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Term
|
Definition
impairment of memory
2 types:
retrograde (past events)
anterograde (loss of ability to make new memories) |
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Term
| 2 types of retrieval for memories |
|
Definition
recall- you know the information
recognition- the information feels familiar
relearning-faster than the first time you learned it |
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Term
|
Definition
inportant for EXPLICIT memories
it is involved in converting the short-term memories into long-term ones |
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Term
|
Definition
important for IMPLICIT memories
skills
classcally conditioned
associations |
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Term
|
Definition
Priming-activation (often unconscious) of memory addiciations
the more similarity between where you studied and where you retreieve, the better memory will be |
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Term
|
Definition
| the feeling that you have had the same experience before |
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Term
|
Definition
involved with deja vu
if one of the things we're processsing in parallel is delayed, it can feel like a repeat |
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Term
|
Definition
can effect memory
Mood-congruency- being in a bad mood makes it earier to remember bad memories
state-dependent memory- we recall things we learn if we are in the same state at encoding and retrieval |
|
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Term
| Memory is a _______process |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
absent-minded- if your attention is divided, you dont encode info well
transience-unused info decays over time
blocking- inaccessibility of store info |
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Term
|
Definition
misattribution- confusing source info
suggestibity-lingering effects of misinformation
bias-belief colored recollections |
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Term
|
Definition
| presistence-recalling unwanted memories |
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Term
|
Definition
when learning some items interferes with retrieval of other items from memory
proactive-learning X yesterday disrupts learning Y today
Retroactive- Learning Y today disrupts X that was learned yesterday |
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Term
| the longer you are awake after learning new info |
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Definition
| the more likely it is to have interference |
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Term
| Freud's belief of motivated forgetting |
|
Definition
| believed that painful memories were often repressed but tht they were waiting in the subconscious |
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Term
| Christiansen and Loftus experience on tramatic memory discovered |
|
Definition
| memory for the essence or theme of traumatic even is remembered very well--details are remembered less |
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Term
|
Definition
source amnesia- making youself believe you experienced an event by reading about it, imagining it, etc
one of the most easily forgotten details of memory is the source of the information |
|
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Term
| misinformation can be lead by |
|
Definition
| suggestibility both purposeful or accidental |
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Term
|
Definition
| memory for things that happened before age 3 are very unreliable |
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Term
| Intellegence is the ability to |
|
Definition
learn from experiences
solve problems
use knowledge to adapt |
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Term
| Social construct of Intelligence |
|
Definition
we value certain skills as a culture
if someone is good at those skills, we call them intellegent |
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Term
Factor Analysis
Theory of Intelligence |
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Definition
you give people a bunch of tests
you run stats to see which tests are related to each other
you interpret what related tests have in common |
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Term
| Spearman proposed the g factor |
|
Definition
| idea that there is one general intellegence |
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Term
| Thurstone found 7 clusters of skills |
|
Definition
one was related to success on all others, we call that the g
several distinct skills exist |
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Term
Kanazawa said
theories of intellegence |
|
Definition
the g is used for solving novel porblems but that everyday problems require a different kind of intellegence
fluid intellegence
crystallized intellegence |
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Term
Gardner said
theories of intellegence |
|
Definition
we have multiple intellegences
Savant Syndrome- major deficits, but areas of extrordinary function |
|
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Term
| sternberg proposed 3 intellegences |
|
Definition
analytical
creative
practical |
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Term
|
Definition
convergent-intellegence
divergent-creativity |
|
|
Term
| 5 components of creativity |
|
Definition
1. Expertise-background knowledge of an area helps you branch out
2. imaginative thinking skills-recognize patters, see things in a new way
3. venturesome personality-seeks new experiences
4. intrinsic motivation-driven by interest not external rewards
5.creative enviroment-sparks, supports,and refines ideas |
|
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Term
| g (idea that there is one general intelligence) predicts |
|
Definition
| performance on a variety of complex tasks, including job performance |
|
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Term
|
Definition
social intelligence-ability to manage social situations
emotional intelligence-ablility to percieve, understand, manage, and adapt to emotions |
|
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Term
| Emotionally intellegent people are____ but emotionally intelligence is NOT the same as |
|
Definition
ARE self-aware
NOT self esteem |
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Term
| Intellegence is linked to |
|
Definition
| specific activity areas of the frontal lobe and parietal lobes |
|
|
Term
| highly educated people die with more |
|
Definition
synapses
this suggests intellegent people differ in neural plasticity |
|
|
Term
| 95% of people fall within 2 SD of the mean |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
genius IQ
Average IQ
Below Average |
|
Definition
152 and Over is genuis
84-116 is average
below 52 is mental defiency |
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Term
| 3 types of modern tests for intellegence |
|
Definition
Acheivement- assess what you have learned (crystallized)
aptitude- assess capacity to learn (fluid)
WAIS- measure verbal and nonverbal test |
|
|
Term
scores below 70 indicate intellectual disability
degrees of disability |
|
Definition
mild 50-70
moderate 35-50
severe 20-35
prefourd below 20 |
|
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Term
| how many percent of children are considered gifted? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of test construction |
|
Definition
reliability- consistent results
validty- are you measuring the right thing |
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Term
|
Definition
a measure can be reliable but NOT valid
a measure can be valid but NOT reliable |
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Term
|
Definition
| around 4 years old, IQ tests performance starts to predicts IQ in teen years after age 7 scores stabilize |
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Term
| Cognition is all the mental processes involved in |
|
Definition
learning info
storing info
processing info |
|
|
Term
| learning information involves |
|
Definition
classical and operant comditioning
observational learning
acquiring language |
|
|
Term
| storing information involves |
|
Definition
memoring-encoding, stoage, and retrieval
--including semantic memories |
|
|
Term
| processing information involves |
|
Definition
attention
working memory
problem solving
decision making
language production comprehension |
|
|
Term
many people argue that only humans have
(cognition) |
|
Definition
self referental episodic memory
metacognition
language |
|
|
Term
| Self referential episodic memory means |
|
Definition
| the sense of self in memories. animals lean in associations, but what some think they lack is the ability to place themselves in the memory, learning the material. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| this refers to the ability to think about thinking. in other words, the ability we have to reflect on what we know and how we learned it |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Rule-govered: rules of grammar
Generative: infinte number of utterances are possible
Recursive: complex gramatical structure
Symbolic: arituary labels and displacement in time or space |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| all the rules regarding how to use a language |
|
|
Term
| rules as a culture for our language |
|
Definition
Descriptive-how people actually speak
prescriptive-how we all agree we're supposed to speak (e.g. double negatives, etc) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Phonology- the rules of the sound system
Semantics- the rules of word meaning
Syntax- the rules of word order |
|
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Term
|
Definition
the use of: vocal cords, oral and nasal cavities
tongue
palate
teeth
lips |
|
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Term
|
Definition
the smallest unit of sound
--around 40 in English |
|
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Term
|
Definition
the smallest unit of meaning
100,000 in English |
|
|
Term
| types of sementics and syntax |
|
Definition
Morpheme
Words
Phrase
Sentence |
|
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Term
|
Definition
meaningful units
around 250,000-750,000 in English |
|
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Term
|
Definition
the context of the utterance
knowledge about the status of those involved
inferred intent of the speaker
prosody
as well as grammar nd lexicon |
|
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Term
|
Definition
the rhythm, rate, and intonation of language affects the meaning beind it , especiall emtional connotation
(i.e. pitch rate) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when we learn a NATIVE language
--occurs without a lot of effort on our part. if we hear a language, its going to happen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when we learn a SECOND language
--requires a lot of effort to be proficient |
|
|
Term
| two types of language aquisition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the simplified language mothers speak to babies, likely to help babies learn |
|
|
Term
| 3 branches of Language Acquisition |
|
Definition
Word Segmentation-
meaning- 50 word explosion happens around 18 months with infants
Grammar- simpler structure are learned earlier |
|
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Term
|
Definition
babbling stage- around 4 months
One-word stage- are 12 months; one word the family can interpret
two-word stage- can b before 24 months
longer phrases- 24 months and beyond |
|
|
Term
| 3 theories of acquisition |
|
Definition
Operant Learning-cannot explain how language is learned
Universal Grammar
Statiscial Learning and Cricial Periods |
|
|
Term
| why acquisition is diferent from learning |
|
Definition
domain specific theory-language device decays with age
domain-general theory- maybe language learning gets worse because we are getting better at other things such as working memory |
|
|
Term
| inate and input influence on acqusition |
|
Definition
natural bias-prefer periodic sounds
statisical learning-word boundaries, grammar
helpful input- moterese |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Borca's area-production
Wenicke's area- comprehension |
|
|
Term
Linquisitc Determinism
aka The Whorffian Hypothesis |
|
Definition
a theory that holds that our language determines the way we think...
this theory says language IS thought |
|
|
Term
| Animals Language includes use of |
|
Definition
prblem solving, learning and abstract operations
however they lack our articulation but they communicate |
|
|
Term
| Emotions are combinations of |
|
Definition
| physilogical activation, expressive behavior, and conscious experience |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
common sense- conschious awareness->physiological reactions and behaviors
James-Lange theory
Cannon-Bard theory
Two-factory theory |
|
|
Term
| sympatheic branch of nervous system |
|
Definition
| fight or flight response (arousing) |
|
|
Term
| Parasympathetic Branch of Nervous system |
|
Definition
| return to baseline (calming) |
|
|
Term
| with Optimium Arousal and Performance |
|
Definition
Moderate arousal helps
Excessive arousal hurts |
|
|
Term
| Arousal can be measure by |
|
Definition
Galvanic Skin Response
Respiration
Heart Rate
very similar to emotions |
|
|
Term
| Dopamine rushes both for sexual attraction and fear..this can |
|
Definition
| confuse sources of attribution as well as give two different emotions |
|
|
Term
| differences in arousal can be seen in |
|
Definition
fear, anger, and sexual arousal.
differences can be measure by finger tempature, facial expression, and neural activity |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Negative emotions activate the right hemisphere
Positive emotions activate left hemisphere |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Polygraph-Lie Detector
Control Questions
Critical questions
guilty knowledge test |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
EEG- brainwaves associated with scene familiarity
fMRI- special areas active during lying |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cognition can define emotion but doesnt always precede it |
|
Definition
spill over effects
secual arousal and sexual orientation |
|
|
Term
| Schachter-Singer Two Faced Theory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Arousal_____emotion
Cognition_______it |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theory that arousal and emotion happen simutaniously |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Says that arousal happens before emotion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
If an action received an award then that action became stamped into the mind
Puzzle Box with cats(expirment) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thorndike believed Behavior changes because of its consequences |
|
|
