Term
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Definition
| Electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength of about 400 nanometers to about 750 nanometers |
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Definition
| A physical dimension of light waves that refers to how much energy the light contains; it determines the brightness of light |
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Term
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Definition
| The distance between peaks in light waves |
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Term
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Definition
| The curved, transparent, protective layer through which light rays enter the eye |
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Term
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Definition
| An opening in the eye, just behind the cornea, through which light passes |
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Term
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Definition
| The part of the eye behind the pupil that bends light rays, focusing them on the retina |
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Term
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Definition
| The surface at the back of the eye onto which the lends focuses light rays |
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Term
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Definition
| The colorful part of the eye, which constricts or relaxes to adjust the amount of light entering the eye |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability of the lends to change its shape and bend light rays so that objects are in focus |
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Term
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Definition
| Nerve cells in the retina that code light energy into neural activity |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemicals in the photoreceptors that respond to light and assist in converting light into neural activity |
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Term
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Definition
| The increasing ability to see in the dark as time in the dark increases |
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Term
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Definition
| Highly light-sensitive, but color-insensitive, photoreceptors in the retina that allow vision even in dim light |
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Term
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Definition
| Photoreceptors in the retina that help us to distinguish colors |
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Term
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Definition
| A region in the center of the retina where cones are highly concentrated |
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Term
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Definition
| Visual clarity, which is greatest in the fovea because of its large concentration of cones |
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Term
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Definition
| A process in which lateral connections allow one photoreceptor to inhibit the responsiveness of its neighbor, thus enhancing the senation of visual contrast |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells in the retina that generate action potentials |
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Term
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Definition
| The portion of the retina, and the visual world, that affects a given ganglion cell |
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Term
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Definition
| A bundle of fibers composed of axons of ganglion cells that carries visual information to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| The light-insensitive point at which axons from all of the ganglion cells coverage and exit the eyeball |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the botton surface of the brain where half of each optic nerve's fibers cross over to the opposite side of the brain |
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Term
| Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) |
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Definition
| A region of the thalamus in which axons from most of the ganglion cells in the retina end and form synapses |
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Term
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Definition
| An area at the back of the brain to which neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus relay visual input |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells in the cortex that respond to a specific feature of an object |
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Term
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Definition
| The essential "color," determined by the dominant wavelength of light |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The sensation of the overall intensity of all of the wavelengths that make up light |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of color vision identifying three types of visual elements, each of which is most sensitive to diff. wavelenghts of light |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of color vision stating that color-sensitive visual elements are grouped into red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white elements |
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Term
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Definition
| A blending of sensory experiences that causes some people to "see" sounds or "taste" colors, for exmaple |
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Term
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Definition
| Senses of touch, temperature, pain, and kinesthesia |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory suggesting that a functional "gate" in the spinal cord can either let pain impulses travel upward to the brain or block their progress |
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Term
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Definition
| The absence of pain sensations in the presence of a normally painful stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The process through which people take raw sensations from the environment and interpret them, using knowledge, experience, and understanding of the world, so that the sensations become meaningful experiences |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach to perception that focuses on how computations by the nervous system translate raw sensory stimulation into an experience of reality |
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Term
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Definition
| A view of perception taken by those who argue that the perceptual system uses fragments of sensory information to construct an image of reality |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach to perception maintaining that humans an other species are so well adapted to their natural environment that many aspects of the world are perceived without requiring higher-level analysis and inferences |
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Term
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Definition
| An area of research focusing on the relationship between the physical characteristics of environmental stiumuli and the psychological experiences those stimuli produce |
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Definition
| The minimum amount of stimulus energy that can be detected 50 percent of the time |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that are too weak or brief to be perceived |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that are strong enough to be consistently perceived |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to detect a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The internal rule a person uses to decide whether or not to report a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| A mathematical model of what determines a person's report that a near-threshold stimulus has or has not occurred |
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Term
| Just-noticeable difference (JND) |
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Definition
| The smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy |
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Term
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Definition
| A law stating that the smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy is a constant fraction of the intensity of the stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The task of determining what edges and other stimuli go together to form an object |
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Term
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Definition
| The perceptual process through which sounds are mentally represented and interpreted |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to perceive distance |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue whereby closer objects block one's view of things farther away |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue whereby larger objects are perceived as closer than small ones |
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Term
| Height in the visual field |
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Definition
| A depth cue whereby objects higher in the visual field are perceived as more distant |
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Term
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Definition
| A graduated change in the texture, or grain, of the visual field, whereby objects with finer, less detailed textures are perceived as more distant |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue whereby objects sloer to the point at which two lines appear to converge are perceived as being at a greater distance |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue whereby a difference in the apparent rate of movement of different objects provides information about the relative distance of those objects |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability of the lens of the eye to change its shape and bend light rays so that objects are in focus |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue involving the rotation of the eyes to project the image of an object on each retina |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue involving the rotation of the eyes to project the image of an object on each retina |
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Term
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Definition
| A depth cue based on the difference between two retinal images of the world |
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Term
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Definition
| A motion cue involving a rapid expansion in the size of an image so that it fills the available space on the retina |
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Term
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Definition
| An illusion in which lights or images flashed in rapid succession are perceived as moving |
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Term
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Definition
| The perception of objects as constant in size, shape, color, and other properties despite changes in their retinal image |
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Term
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Definition
| Aspects of recognition that are guided by higher-level cognitive proceses and psychological factors such as expectations |
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Term
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Definition
| Aspects of recognition that depend first on the information about the stimulus that comes to the brain from the sensory receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental representation of what we know, and have come to expect, about the world |
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Term
| Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models |
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Definition
| As approach to understanding object recognition in which various elements of the oject are thought to be simultaneoulsy analyzed by a number of widely distributed, but connected, neural units in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| The influences that account for the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| A reason or purpose for behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| A view that explains human behavior as motived by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses |
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Term
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Definition
| Innate, automatic dispositions toward responding in a particular way when confronted with a specific stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for organisms to keep their physiological systems at a stable, steady level by constantly adjusting themselves in response to change |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis |
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Term
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Definition
| A psychological state of arousal created by an imbalance in homeostasis that prompts an organism to take action to restore the balance and reduce the drive |
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Term
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Definition
| Drives that arise from basic biological needs |
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Term
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Definition
| Theories of motivation stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is, for them, an optimal level of arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| Drives that arise from basic biological needs |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that acquire the motivational properties of primary drives through classical conditioning or other learning mechanisms |
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Term
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Definition
| A general level of activation that is reflected in several psychological systems |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| The general state of watning to eat |
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Term
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Definition
| The condition of no longer wanting to eat |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition in which a person is severly overweight, as measured by a body-mass index greater than 30 |
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Term
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Definition
| An eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and dramatic weight loss |
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Term
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Definition
| An eating disorder that involved eating massice amounts of food and then eliminating the food by self-induced vomiting or the use of strong laxatives |
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Term
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Definition
| A motive reflected in the degree to which a person establishes specific goals, cares about meeting these goals, and experiences feelings of statisfaction by doing so |
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Term
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Definition
| A motive reflected in the degree to which a person establishes specific goals, cares about meeting these goals, and experiences feelings of statisfaction by doing so |
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Term
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Definition
| A combination of a cognitive judgment of satisfaction with life, the frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions, and the relatively infrequent experiencing of unpleasant moods and emotions |
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Term
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Definition
| A transitory positive or negative experience that is felt as happening to the self, is generated in part by cognitive appraisal of a situation, and is accompanied by both learned and reflexive physical responses |
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Term
| Sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| The subsystem of the auntonomic nervous system that usually prepares the organism for vigorous activity |
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Term
| Parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| The subsystem of the autonomic nervous system that typically influences activity related to the protection, nourishment, and growth of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| The physical reactions initiated by the sympathetic nervous system that prepare the body to fight or to run from a threatening situation |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of explaining the causes of an event |
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Term
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Definition
| A process in which arousal from one experience carries over to affect emotion in an independent situation |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of adapting to stimuli that do not change |
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Term
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Definition
| A procedure in which a nuetral stimulus is repeatedly paried with a stimulus that elicits a reflex or other response until the neutral stimulus alone comes to elicit a similar response |
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Term
| Unconditional stimulus (UCS) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| The atuomatic or unlearned reaction to a stimulus |
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Term
| Unconditioned response (UCR) |
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Definition
| The automatic or unlearned reaction to a stimulus |
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Term
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| The originally neutral stimulus that, through pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response |
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Term
| Conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
| The response that the conditioned stimulus elicits |
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Term
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Definition
| The gradual disappearance of a conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the appearance of an unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The quick relearning of a conditioned response following extinction |
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Term
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Definition
| The reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction and without further pairings of the conditioned and unconditionaed stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| A phenomenon in which a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| A process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one |
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Term
| Second-order conditioning |
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Definition
| A phenomenon in which a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus, creating conditioned stimuli out of events associated with it |
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Term
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Definition
| A law stating that if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction, that response is more likely the next time the stimulus is encountered |
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Term
| Instrumental conditioning |
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Definition
| A process through which an organism learns to respond to the environment in a way that produces positive consequences and avoids negative ones |
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Term
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Definition
| A process through which an organism learns to respond to the environment in a way that produces positive consequences and avoids negative ones |
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Term
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Definition
| A response that has some effect on the world |
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Term
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Definition
| A stimulus event that increases the probability that the response that immediately preceded it will occur again |
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Term
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Definition
| The removal of unpleasant stimuli, such as pain |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of learning in which an organism learns to make a particular response in order to terminate an aversive stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of learning in which an organism responds to a signal in a way that prevents exposure to an aversive stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain response is made |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of reinforcing responses that come successively closer to the desired response |
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Term
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Definition
| Reinforcers that meet an organism's basic needs, such as food and water |
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Term
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Definition
| A reward that people or animals learn to like |
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Term
| Continuous reinforcement schedule |
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Definition
| A pattern in which a reinforcer is delivered every time a particular response occurs |
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Term
| Partial reinforcement schedule |
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Definition
| A pattern in which a reinforcer is administered only some of the time after a particular response occurs |
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Term
| Fixed-ration (FR) schedule |
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Definition
| A partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement following a fixed number of responses |
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Term
| Variable-interval (VI) schedule |
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Definition
| A partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement for the first response after varying periods of time |
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Term
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Definition
| The gradual disappearance of perant behavior due to elimination of rewards for that behavior |
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Term
| Partial reinforcement extinction effect |
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Definition
| A phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule |
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Term
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Definition
| Presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning that responses do not affect consequences, resulting in failure to try to exert control over the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| A mental representation of the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| A sudden understanding about what is required to solve a problem |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning how to perform new behaviors by watching others |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning conditioned responses by watching what happens to others |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of acquiring information and entering it into memory |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental representation of information as a sequence of sounds |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental representation of information as images |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental representation of an experience by its general meaning |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of maintaining information in memory over time |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory of an event that happened while one was present |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of recalling information stored in memory |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory of an evcent that happened while one was present |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of memory containing information about how to do things |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of memory containing information about how to do things |
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Term
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Definition
| The process in which people intentionally try to remember something |
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Term
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Definition
| The unintentional influence of prior experiences |
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Term
| Levels-of-processing model |
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Definition
| A view stating that how well something is remembered depends on the degree to which incoming information is mentally processed |
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Term
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Definition
| Repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory |
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Term
| Transfer-appropriate processing model |
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Definition
| A model of memory that suggests that a critical determinant of memory is how well the retrieval process matches the original encoding process |
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Term
| Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models |
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Definition
| Memory models in which new experiences change one's overall knowledge base |
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Term
| Information-processing model |
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Definition
| A model of memory in which information is seen as passing through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of memory that holds lare amounts of incoming information very briefly, but long enough to connect one impression to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory systems that hold incoming information long enough for it to be processed further |
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Term
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Definition
| The focusing of mental resources on only part of the stimulus field |
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Term
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Definition
| The maintenance component of working memory, which holds inrehearsed information for a limited time |
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Term
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Definition
| The part of the memory system that allows us to mentally work with, or manipulate, information being held in short-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| The maximum number of items a person can recall perfectly after one presentation of the items |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that are perceived as one unit or as a meaningful grouping of information |
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Term
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Definition
| A method for determining how long unrehearsed information remains in short-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity to store new information is believed to be unlimited |
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity to store new information is belived to be unlimited |
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Term
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Definition
| A characteristic of memory in which recall of the first two of three items in a list is particularly good |
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Term
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Definition
| A characteristic of memory in which recall is particularly good for the last few items in a list |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory |
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Term
| Encoding specificity principle |
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Definition
| A principle stating that the ability of a cue to aid retrieval depends on the degree to which it taps into information that was encoded at the time of the original learning |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory that can be helped or hindered by similarities or differences between the context in which it is learned and the conext in which it is recalled |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory that is aided or impeded by a person's internal state |
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Term
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Definition
| A principle that exlplains how information is retrieved in semantic network theories of memory |
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Term
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Definition
| Measuring forgetting by computing the diff. between the number of repetitions needed to learn and, after a delay, relearn the same material |
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Term
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Definition
| The gradual disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The process through which either the storage or the retrieval of info. is impaired by the presence of other info. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cause of forgetting in which new info. placed in memory interferes with the ability to recall info. already in memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A cause of forgetting in which info. already in memory interferences with the ability to remember new info. |
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Term
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Definition
| A loss of memory for any event that occurs after a brain injury |
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Term
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Definition
| A loss of memory for events prior to a brain injury |
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