Term
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Definition
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Term
| How many chromosomes exist in humans? |
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Definition
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Term
| Chromosome Theory of Inheritance |
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Definition
1. Inherited traits are controlled by genes residing on chromosomes.
2. These genes are transmitted through gametes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes are copied and distributed so that the two resulting daughter cells each receive a diploid set |
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Term
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Definition
| The gametes produced are haploid |
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Term
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Definition
| Produce alleles of a gene. Are a source of genetic veriation. |
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Term
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Definition
Double helical, antiparallel, double-stranded. Made up of the nucleotides A, C, G, and T. Has the sugar deoxyribose.
A-T
C-G |
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Term
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Definition
| Single stranded, has U in place of T. Sugar is ribose |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of converting DNA to RNA to protein. The genetic code consists of triplet nucleotides present in mRNA. Each of these triplets encodes for insertion of a specific amino acid into a growing protein chain |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. One example is genetic modification of crops for attributes such as herbicide resistance, insect resistance, virus resistance, etc |
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Term
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Definition
| Analyzes genome sequences to study the structure, function, and evolution of genes and genomes |
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Term
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Definition
| identifies a set of proteins present in cells under a given set of conditions and studies their post-translational modifications, their locations within cells, and their interactions |
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Term
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Definition
| Stores, retrieves, and analyzes data generated by genomics and proteomics |
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Term
| Criteria for model organisms |
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Definition
Easy to grow
Short life cycle
Produce many offspring
Example is drosophila, E. coli |
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Term
| A fundamental property of DNA’s nitrogenous bases that is necessary for the double-stranded nature of its structure is |
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Definition
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Term
| Recombinant DNA technology is dependent on a particular class of enzymes, known as………………………………………., that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences. |
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Definition
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Term
| The various characteristics of organisms that result from their genetic makeup are collectively referred to as an organism’s |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the features of DNA that suit it for its role as a hereditary molecule? |
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Definition
Ability to replicate
Its informational content
Relative stability while still being able to mutate or change |
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Term
| Name the nitrogenous bases in DNA and their pairing specificities |
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Definition
Adenine – Thymine
Guanine - Cytosine |
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Term
| What is meant by the term genetic code? |
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Definition
| It’s a linear series of three adjacent nucleotides present in mRNA molecules |
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Term
| What is meant by ‘central dogma of genetics’? |
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Definition
| The functional and structural relationships among DNA, RNA, and protein |
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Term
| Compare and contrast nonenzymatic and enzymatic proteins. |
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Definition
| Both are gene products and composed of a string of amino acids. Enzymes are catalysts for most biochemical reactions. Non-enzymatic proteins include structural (collagen), protective (immunoglobulin) and transport (hemoglobin) proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
| uncondensed version of chromosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organize spindle fibers for movement of chromosomes during meiosis and mitosis |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Centromere is right smack in the middle of the chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Centromere is between middle and end |
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Term
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Definition
| Centromere is close to the end |
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Term
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Definition
| Centromere is at the end (essentially don't have a p arm) |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosome above the centromere |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosome below the centromere |
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Term
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Definition
| Nuclear division - division of genetic material |
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Term
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Definition
| cytoplasmic division, division of the actual cell |
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Term
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Definition
Includes the S phase and the G1 and G2 gaps
Goes G1 -> S -> G2
G0 phase is in the G1 phase
DNA synthesis occurs |
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Term
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Definition
An idle state where cells in this phase don't divide but stay metabolically active
In the G1 phase |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Prophase - longest phase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes are extended and uncoiled, forming chromatin |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes coil up and condense; centrioles divide and move apart |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes are clearly double structures; centrioles reach the opposite poles, spindle fibers form, chromosomes move to the equatorial plane of the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Centromeres align on metaphase plate |
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Term
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Definition
Centromeres split and daughter chromosomes migrate to opposire poles
The separated sister chromatids are called daughter chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles, cytokinesis commences |
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Term
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Definition
| rotein structure on chromatids where the spindle fibers attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart |
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Term
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Definition
| monitors cell size and evaluates the condition of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA is checked to see if replication was completed and if any damaged occured |
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Term
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Definition
| Spindle fibers form and attach to kinetochores |
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Term
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Definition
Leptoneme
Zygoneme - chromosomes form the bivalent
Pachynema - chromosomes form tetrad shape
Diplonema - chromosomes form complete tetrad with chiasma
Diakinesis - terminalization |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes appear as threads |
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Term
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Definition
| Homologouc chromosomes pair up (synapsis). Each pair is known as bivalent |
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Term
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Definition
| the pairing up of homologous chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Each bivalent becomes shorter, thicker, and splits into two sister chromatids. Crossing over appears here. Forms tetrads |
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Term
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Definition
| when chromosomes don't separate like they should |
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Term
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Definition
Spermatogonium
to
Primary spermatocyte
to
Two secondary spermatocytes
Each of these split into two creating 4 spermatids which eventually mature into 4 sperm cells |
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Term
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Definition
Oogonium
to
Primary ooctyte
Splits into a secondary oocyte and a first polar body
The secondary oocyte splits into an ootid and second polar body
The ootid matures into an ovum (After puberty) |
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Term
| Mendel's Garden Peas experiment |
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Definition
Used true-breeding strains of peas
He compared observable characteristics with two distinct forms |
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Term
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Definition
| A cross for two alleles of ONE gene (hence the mono) |
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Term
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Definition
| Original parents of a cross |
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Term
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Definition
| the offspring of the cross between two true-breeding parents (P1's) |
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Term
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Definition
Self fertilization of a F1 generation offspring
Phenotypic ratio is 3:1
Genotypic ratio is 1:2:1
These ratios exist because an F2 offspring results from two F1's crossing and F1's are going to be heterozygous |
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Term
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Definition
| Mendel's words for genes. He felt these factors are passed unchanged from generation to generation |
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Term
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Definition
| A cross that is not sex dependent and will yield the same results no matter which order you it in. Can also be used to test if sex plays a role |
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Term
| Mendel's 4 postulates of inheritance |
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Definition
Unit factors exist in pairs
In the pair, one factor is dominant, the other is recessive.
The pair separates independently during gamete formation
All combinations of gametes will form with equal frequency |
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Term
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Definition
| the genetic makeup of an individual |
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Term
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Definition
| the physical expression of the genetic makeup |
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Term
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Definition
| same alleles for a particular gene |
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Term
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Definition
| different alleles for a particular gene |
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Term
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Definition
| A cross used to determine if an individual is homozygous or heterozygous for a dominant (keyword here) trait. The individual is always crossed with a homozygous recessive individual and based on the results, you can figure out the alleles for that individual |
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Term
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Definition
A cross for two pairs of different traits.
ex: seed color and height
GgSs x GGss
F2 generation ratios:
9:3:3:1 phenotypic |
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Term
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Definition
To do an analysis:
Multiply each expected ratios times the total number of offspring. This represents the expected number of of offspring you should get for that phenotype.
Subtract this expected number FOR EACH RATIO from the observed number you got and square this number.
For each ratio, divide this number by the expected number to get a decimal.
Sum up all the decimals and this will be your X2 number
Simpler version:
X2 = sum of (O-E)^2/E
To figure out your p value, you need to have the degree of freedom which is n-1 where n is the number of different ratios you have.
For a monohybrid cross, df will be 1 and for a dihybrid cross, n will be 3
FINALLY: if the p value is less than .05, then you fail to reject the null hypothesis (ie, the hypothesis is true). If it's greater than .05, then you can reject the null hypothesis |
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Term
| Easy way to figure out the F2 generation for a dihybrid cross |
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Definition
Use the product rule!
You need to already have the genotype of the F1 generation
First pick one trait and simulate a monohybrid cross for it. You already know the phenotypic ratio is going to be (3/4) for the dominant trait and (1/4) for the recessive trait. Next, multiply this by the result of the other trait's own little monohybrid cross. All in all, you should have four products.
ex:
(3/4) dominant trait 1 * (3/4) dominant trait 2 = 9/16
(3/4) dominant trait 1 * (1/4) recessive trait 2) = 3/16
(1/4) recessive trait 1 * (3/4) dominant trait 2 = 3/16
(1/4) dominant trait 1 * (1/4) recessive trait 2) = 1/16
You can apply this same logic for trihybrid crosses |
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Term
| Math rules for n gene pairs |
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Definition
Number of different types of gametes: 2^n
Number of different genotypes produced: 3^n
Number of different phenotypes produced: 2^n |
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Term
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Definition
Used to calculate the probability of something large
(a+b)^n where n = the number of times the event occurs
How to do:
Number of terms is n+1
a exponents start n and goes down to 0
b exponents start at 0 and worth their way up to n
Coefficients of the first and last term is always 1
To figure out the NEXT coefficients, it's coefficient of a * exponent of a/term number |
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Term
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Definition
| Assumes that there is no real difference between the two values you're looking at |
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Term
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Definition
| Shows a family tree with respect to a given trait. Recessive traits typically skips generations while dominant traits always appear in each generation |
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Term
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Definition
Spermatogonium
to
Primary spermatocyte
to
Two secondary spermatocytes
Each of these split into two creating 4 spermatids which eventually mature into 4 sperm cells |
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Term
|
Definition
Oogonium
to
Primary ooctyte
Splits into a secondary oocyte and a first polar body
The secondary oocyte splits into an ootid and second polar body
The ootid matures into an ovum (After puberty) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the one that occurs most frequently in nature. Usually dominant |
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Term
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Definition
| modified from the wild type |
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Term
| Loss of function mutation |
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Definition
| A mutation the causes the reduction or loss of a WILD-TYPE function. Results in a null allele |
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Term
| Gain-of-function mutation |
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Definition
| enhances the funtion of the wild-type |
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Term
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Definition
Wild type has +
Mutant doesn't so for example for color:
gray (wild type color) is e+
ebony (mutant type color) is e |
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Term
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Definition
Neither trait is dominant
Phenotypic and genotypic ratios are identical. That's because each phenotype has it's own genotype |
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Term
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Definition
| If a certain level of gene product is obtained, then normal phenotypic expression will occur in cases of incomplete dominance |
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Term
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Definition
| Both alleles are fully expressed |
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Term
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Definition
| have to be studied in a population, not individually |
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Term
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Definition
A type: I^A I^O or I^A I^A
B type: I^B I^O or I^B I^A
AB type: I^A I^B
O type: I^O I^O
A type means the terminal sugar N-acetyle... was added to the H substance
B type means galactose was added.
O means neither were added |
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Term
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Definition
| Missing fucose on H substance so no A or B antigens could be made. However still typed as O? |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be tolerated in the heterozygous state, lethal in the homozygous state |
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Term
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Definition
| No matter what, if you get the dominant allele, you're finished. |
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Term
| Conditional lethal alleles |
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Definition
| may be fatal only at certain conditions |
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Term
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Definition
| Many genes affect one phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when a gene or gene pair can modify or mask the effect of another gene or gene pair |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when gene interaction results in new phenotypes |
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Term
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Definition
| A gene has multiple phenotypic effects |
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Term
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Definition
| An exanple of an X-linked recessive disease |
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Term
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Definition
| Expression of a specific phenotype is limited to one sex |
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Term
| Sex-influenced inheritance |
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Definition
Sex of an individual influences the expression of a gene.
Example of this is baldness which is dominant in males and recessive in females |
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Term
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Definition
| The percentage of individuals that express a gene of a given population |
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Term
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Definition
| the range of expression of the mutant phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| mutant allele restores the wild type by a different mutation |
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Term
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Definition
| the location of a gene influences its expression |
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Term
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Definition
| a phenomenon whereby the symptoms of a genetic disorder become apparent at an earlier age as it is passed on to the next generation. In most cases, an increase of severity of symptoms is also noted |
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Term
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Definition
| Genes that are on the same chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Only parental (noncrossover) gametes are produced |
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Term
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Definition
| The distance between two genes on a chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| All the genes on a chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Defined as 1 percent recombination between two genes |
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Term
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Definition
| Two noncrossover and two recombinant gametes |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be used to determine the order of three genes on the chromosome |
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Term
| Coefficient of coincidence |
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Definition
| Observed number of DCOs divided by expected number of DCOs |
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Term
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Definition
| FEWER DCOs occur than expected |
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Term
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Definition
| MORE DCOs occurred than expected |
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Term
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Definition
> 3, linkage
< -2, no linkage
else inconclusive |
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Term
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Definition
| The initial cell that results from somatic cell hybridization |
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Term
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Definition
| A cell that results when chromosomes from one cell is gradually lost until just a few remain while the other chromosomes live on |
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Term
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Definition
| Uses a panel of cell lines to see what genes are on what chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Represent landmarks along the chromosome |
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Term
| Sister chromatid exchanges |
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Definition
| Only occur during mitosis. Do not produce new allelic combinations |
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Term
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Definition
| proposes that bacteria must have interaction with a bacteriophage in order to gain immunity from it |
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Term
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Definition
| the growth of the organism under conditions in which only the MUTANT grows, not the wild type |
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Term
| 3 ways of genetic recombination in bacteria |
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Definition
Conjugation
Transduction
Transformation |
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Term
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Definition
| happens when an F factor is removed from the chromosome of an Hfr cell. F' to an F- cell results in a merozygote (partially diploid). Two F' cells |
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Term
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Definition
| One bacteria connects to another bacteria by sex pilus to exchange genetic info |
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Term
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Definition
| F+ cells contain a fertility factor which they donate to F- cells. These cells are then converted to F+ cells |
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Term
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Definition
| Hfr cells have the fertility factor integrated into its DNA. It will still donate this to an F- cell but it will get interrupted and so the cell will remain F- |
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Term
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Definition
Contain one or more genes and replicate independently from the bacterial chromosome
F factor - fertility
R plasmid - antibiotic resistance
Col plasmid - encode colicins to kill other bacteroa |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA from the environment is taken up by the bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
| infect bacteria by injecting their DNA (transduction) |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which phage DNA is integrated into the bacteria and replicated |
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Term
| Lederberg-Zinder Experiment |
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Definition
Represented transduction
What they found was that with the two separate strands, one strand produced phages that went and lysed the other strand through the filter. zwhen the phages did the lysing, the took up some of the host DNA, traveled back across the filter and infected it's own strain. This gave the strain the right nutrients it needed to grow as a prototroph |
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Term
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Definition
| A lot of bacterial DNA is packaged and transferred |
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Term
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Definition
| Only a small piece of bacterial DNA is packaged |
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Term
| Primary sexual differentiation |
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Definition
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Term
| Secondary sexual differentiation |
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Definition
| Involves the overall appearance of the organism |
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Term
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Definition
| Contain only male or female parts (dioecious) |
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Term
| Bisexual (hermaphroditic) |
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Definition
| contain both (monoecious) |
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Term
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Definition
| Gametes that fuse together and aren't distinguishable |
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Term
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Definition
| Has two mating types: mt- and mt+ which mate together to form a zygote during times of unfavorable conditions |
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Term
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Definition
| Have either males or hermaphrodrites which the hermaphrodites self fertilize to produce mostly hermaphrodites |
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Term
| XX/XO mode of sex determination |
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Definition
Two X's - female
One X - male |
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Term
| ZZ/ZW mode of sex determination |
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Definition
ZZ - male
ZW - female
so it's reversed from humans |
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Term
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Definition
| A male with more than one X chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Females with more than two X's |
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Term
| Formation of female organs |
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Definition
| The Wolffian duct degenerates in the absence of SRY |
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Term
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Definition
| The Mullerian duct degenerates in the presence of SRY |
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Term
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Definition
| The region on the top and bottom of the Y chromosome that matches regions on the X chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| sex determining region, below the PAR at the top of the chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| male specific region of the Y chromosome. Is essentially the whole chromosome except the two PAR regions on the ends |
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Term
| Testis determining factor (TDF) |
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Definition
| protein encoded by SRY. Triggers testes formation |
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Term
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Definition
| male to female CONCEIVED proportion |
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Term
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Definition
| proportion of each sex that is BORN |
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Term
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Definition
| States that the deactivation of X chromosomes in females is random |
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Term
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Definition
| Located on the Barr body, has a gene essential for deactivation |
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Term
| Ratio of X chromosomes to autosomes in Drosophilia |
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Definition
More than 1 - Metafemale
1 - female
Between 0.5 and 1 - Intersex
0.5 - male
Below 0.5 - Metamale |
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Term
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Definition
| A change in chromosome number |
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Term
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Definition
| a general class of aneuploidies where organism has multiples of n |
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Term
|
Definition
| have more than 2 sets of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| The loss of 1 chromosome. For humans, is usually the X chromosome that's the only thing allowed |
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Term
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Definition
| When you have three copies of a chromosome. This leads to irregular pairings because normally only two homologs can synapse |
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Term
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Definition
| when three chromosomes from a trisomy triple synapse |
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Term
|
Definition
| When Down Syndrome runs in fmailies |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Polyploidy exists in two ways |
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Definition
the addition of one or more sets of chromosomes identical to the haploid complement of the same species (autopolyploidy)
combination of chromosome sets from different species as a consequence of interspecfic matings (allopolyploidy) |
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Term
|
Definition
| only certain cells in an otherwise diploid organism are polyploid |
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Term
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Definition
| A missing region of a chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| deletion of a small portion of chromosome 5 |
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Term
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Definition
| Increasing the amount of rRNA |
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Term
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Definition
involves a rearrangement of the linear gene sequence. 180 degree rotation
Requires two breaks in the chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Doesn't change the length of the arms |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes the length of the arms which includes the centromere |
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Term
|
Definition
| The movement of a chromosomal segment to a new location |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of segments between two nonhomolougous chromosomes |
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Term
| Robertsonian translocation |
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Definition
| involves breaks at the very ends of two nonhomologous chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| when there's a fragile site on the X chromosome. Is a dominant trait |
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Term
|
Definition
| sites that are prone to breakage |
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Term
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Definition
| the condition in which there's a mutation in an organelle |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA contained in mitochondria or chloroplasts determines certain phenotypic characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| states that mitochondria and chloroplasts arose 2 billion years ago from bacteria. These bacteria were engulfed by larger eukaryotes and these bacteria became the organelles we know and love today |
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Term
| Mitochondria vs Chloroplast DNA |
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Definition
| Chloroplast DNA is a lot heavier, encodes for things related to photosynthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
| implies that an offspring's phenotype is under the control of nuclear gene products present in the egg |
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