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Exam 1
Systems Neuroscience
420
Other
Graduate
02/25/2020

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Term
while phrenology has been debunked, we still have the notion that ______
Definition
certain parts of the brain do certain things
Term
______ are the fundamental units of the brain
Definition
neural cells (neurons)
Term
three main parts of neurons
Definition
1. dendrites (input)
2. soma (integration)
3. axon (output)
Term
why do neurons differ in size & shape?
Definition
to achieve functional specialization
Term
communication between cells is achieved through _______
Definition
contact (not connection)
Term
contact points between neurons are called ______
Definition
synapses (Greek, "fastened together") (are where electrical signals are converted to chemical signals)
Term
neurons only release one type of transmitter which will have one of two possible types of effects on downstream ("post-synaptic") cell
Definition
excitatory or inhibitory
Term
form & function of retinal ganglion cell
Definition
arborization allows it to take in information from a broad, wide area
Term
form & function of retinal bipolar cell
Definition
small dendrites --> relatively small cell body --> short singular descending axon; receives very limited information & transmits that information to specific neurons
Term
form & function of retinal amacrine cell
Definition
large surface area of dendrites --> cell body --> no axon!; just releases neurotransmitter diffusely from cell body
Term
form & function of cerebellar Purkinje cell
Definition
tons of dendrites --> very short distance to cell body --> axon with some feedback going back; integrates a lot of information & needs some feedback to itself
Term
form & function of cortical pyramidal cell
Definition
normal dendrites --> cell body --> axons going sideways; axons talk to other neurons nearby (ex. other pyramidal cells)
Term
why would a cell have a very long axon coming from axon hillock?
Definition
allows neurons in one area to talk to cells that are much farther away (up to centimeters)
Term
presynaptic neuron sends information from axon --> postsynaptic neuron receives information in _______
Definition
dendrites
Term
what is the purpose of the dendritic spines
Definition
increase surface area of the dendrites
Term
myelinated axons
Definition
serves as insulation to allow the charge to carry on down the axon
Term
how do you tell which is presynaptic at a synaptic ending?
Definition
being able to see vesicles in that neuron (vesicles contain the neurotransmitter)
Term
gray matter vs white matter
Definition
gray matter = neurons

white matter = mostly glia
Term
do glia do signaling?
Definition
shared genetic lineage with neurons, but (mostly) don't do signaling
Term
3 jobs of glia
Definition
1. homeostasis/clean up (astrocytes)
2. insulating axons to improve neural conduction (oligodendrocytes)
3. repair
Term
main job of astrocyte
Definition
clean-up
Term
morphology of oligodendrocyte
Definition
cell body with glial processes that are fairly long & axon-shaped
Term
function of microglial cell
Definition
derived from immune cells & serve an immune function
Term
different jobs of astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, or microglia
Definition
cleaning up neurotransmitter = astrocyte

immune response = microglia

myelin = oligodendrocyte
Term
2 main parts in the organization of the brain
Definition
1. cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, occipital, & temporal lobes
2. brain stem: how brain talks to rest of the body
Term
topography
Definition
brain maps
Term
gyrus vs sulcus
Definition
gyrus = pointing out

sulcus = hole going in
Term
goal of brains having folds (sulcus & gyrus)
Definition
maximize surface area
Term
on a graph measuring activity of sensory neuron on a graph of time (ms) vs membrane potential (mV), what is the peak up?
Definition
action potential
Term
2 parts of cortical nervous system
Definition
1. brain
2. spinal cord
Term
what is the peripheral nervous system
Definition
body outside of brain & spinal cord
Term
4 steps in knee-jerk response
Definition
1. hammer tap stretches tendon, which, in turn, stretches sensory receptors in leg extensor muscle
2. sensory neuron synapses with & excites motor neuron in the spinal cord; sensory neuron also excites spinal interneuron; interneuron synapse inhibits motor neuron to flexor muscles
3. motor neuron conducts action potential to synapses on extensor muscle fibers, causing contraction; flexor muscle relaxes because the activity of the motor neurons has been inhibited
4. leg extends
Term
sensory neuron, motor neuron (extensor), & interneuron --> increase or decrease activity with hammer tap?
Definition
increase
Term
motor neuron (flexor) --> increase or decrease activity with hammer tap
Definition
decrease due to inhibitory signal from interneuron
Term
is the brain involved in the knee-jerk response reflex?
Definition
no!
Term
does number of genes equate to complexity of the organism?
Definition
no
Term
what tells us what brain areas are involved in neurological processes
Definition
structural MRI
Term
functional MRI
Definition
tells you how much oxygen is in your blood in certain brain areas
Term
which brain scan can help you sparse out activity just prior to movement vs activity at start of movement vs activity just after start of movement (ms time scale)
Definition
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Term
one pro & one con for using EEG
Definition
con: summarizing over a large area compared to how many neurons are in that area

pro: lets you have ms time resolution
Term
what type of study tells you what neurons are involved & how they process information in a task?
Definition
single-unit electrophysiological recording
Term
what do you make by this process: do many trials --> record neuron activity over the trials --> make histogram of activity across trials?
Definition
peri-stimulus time histogram (PSTH)
Term
what tells you average neuronal activity per unit time over many trials?
Definition
peri-stimulus time histogram (PSTH)
Term
calcium imaging
Definition
when cells are active --> change in calcium concentration --> increase in calcium causes neurons to glow due to a genetic marker
Term
channelrhodopsin
Definition
depolarizing via influx of calcium/sodium/protons/potassium
Term
halorhodopsin
Definition
hyperpolarizing via influx of chloride
Term
which method involved light coming into brain to turn on/off specific neurons to cause a change in activity?
Definition
optogenetic
Term
striatal illumination, striatal recording --> laser increases or decreases firing?
Definition
increases
Term
striatal illumination, SNr recording --> laser increases or decreases firing?
Definition
decreases
Term
which technique uses electromagnetic coil to pulse a magnetic field to stimulate a cortical region by temporarily "lesioning" (disrupting electrical fields) certain brain regions
Definition
TBS!
Term
does an action potential stay within the cell or travel outside of it?
Definition
stays within cell
Term
4 types of ion channels
Definition
1. ligand-gated
2. always open
3. voltage-gated
4. pressure-gated channels
Term
is movement of ions through channel relatively large or relatively small changes in voltage?
Definition
small
Term
shortcut of Nernst Equation
Definition
E ion = (60/Z)(log[ion out]/[ion in])
Term
6 phases of AP
Definition
1. resting
2. rising
3. overshoot
4. falling
5. undershoot
6. recovery
Term
membrane potential of a cell changes throughout an action potential because of _________
Definition
voltage-gated ion channels
Term
what type of ion channel brings membrane voltage to very depolarized potentials during an AP
Definition
fast Na channels
Term
what type of ion channel opens second to repolarize membrane during an AP
Definition
K
Term
how do action potentials move down axon without dissipating?
Definition
myelination (increasing the length constant)
Term
3 parts of a channel
Definition
1. extracellular side
2. membrane crossing part
3. cytoplasmic side
Term
membrane potential
Definition
whatever the voltage is across the cell membrane
Term
is equilibrium potential the same for each ion species?
Definition
no
Term
action potential occurs due to these 3 types of channels
Definition
1. voltage gated sodium
2. voltage gated potassium
3. leak
Term
sodium potassium pump pumps sodium out & potassium in via ______
Definition
ATP
Term
is the sodium cycle of an AP fast or slow?
Definition
very fast
Term
is the potassium cycle of an AP fast or slow?
Definition
slower
Term
is an AP quick or slow?
Definition
very quick (ms scale)
Term
once various ion changes bring cell to threshold from resting potential --> ?
Definition
action potential occurs
Term
sodium channels = responsible for AP ______ phase
Definition
rising
Term
do voltage gated potassium channels inactivate?
Definition
no...they are either open or closed
Term
are leak channels always open?
Definition
yes (they are just holes)
Term
how could you prove the importance of sodium & potassium in the AP phases?
Definition
change solution in which neuron sits & measure voltage change
Term
sodium conductance = start or end of action potential?
Definition
start
Term
potassium conductance = earlier or later in action potential?
Definition
later (but broader)
Term
why is the difference in sodium/potassium channel dynamics so important?
Definition
it is why we even get action potentials
Term
even though ions can move through a channel in both ways, the net flow direction occurs due to ________
Definition
concentration gradient
Term
refractory period
Definition
when action potential hyperpolarizes past resting potential closer to potassium equilibrium potential
Term
downward current = into or out of the cell?
Definition
into
Term
upward current = into or out of the cell?
Definition
out
Term
what current trace do we usually see for an AP?
Definition
initial downward current (sodium) followed by upward current (potassium)
Term
when can sodium current become upward?
Definition
if you step up the voltage enough!
Term
when do you not see a current trace for a given ion?
Definition
at equilibrium potential
Term
TTX
Definition
blocks sodium channel (only see AP potassium current)
Term
tetraethylammonium
Definition
blocks potassium channel (only see AP sodium current)
Term
important thing to remember when setting voltage to study the pharmacological separation of AP currents into sodium & potassium components
Definition
need to be stepping to a voltage where you would see both & sodium would be downward & potassium would be upward (such as 0 mV)
Term
does lidocaine work as well as TTX?
Definition
no; you see a shakier read out
Term
what ensure proper directionality of action potentials down axon?
Definition
inactivation of sodium channels
Term
propagation
Definition
voltage wave flowing down an axon!
Term
solution to the fact that it is energetically costly to rejuvenate action potential all the way down axon at every spot
Definition
myelin!
Term
there is nowhere for charge to escape when it is wrapped with ________
Definition
myelin
Term
are all axons myelinated?
Definition
no!
Term
why do we need nodes of Ranvier?
Definition
signal will slightly degrade through myelinated sections & nodes give chance to re-boost
Term
autoimmune disease that attacks myelin-generating cells
Definition
multiple sclerosis
Term
4 types of patch clamp
Definition
1. cell-attached
2. whole-cell
3. inside-out
4. outside-in
Term
downward current means inward or outward flow?
Definition
inward!
Term
an axon is leaky...._______ help stops charge from leaking out
Definition
myelin
Term
can you record from a singular ion channel with patch clamp?
Definition
yes!
Term
ion channels act _______
Definition
stochasitcally
Term
recording from sodium channel --> you see?
Definition
downward current followed by nothing because of inactivation
Term
another name for gap junctions
Definition
electrical synapses
Term
what type of synapse is where two sides of the synapse are basically connected
Definition
electrical
Term
do electrical synapses have vesicles?
Definition
no!
Term
importance of electrical synapses
Definition
ensure that neuron 2 fires reliably every time that neuron 1 fires
Term
electrical synapses are often found in what brain region?
Definition
hippocampus
Term
4 steps of chemical synapse
Definition
1. presynaptic neuron has vesicles containing neurotransmitter
2. vesicles merge with membrane to release neurotransmitter
3. neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors to cause them to open
4. signal propagates
Term
3 tests to see if we need calcium for vesicles to release
Definition
1. block calcium channels & clamp voltage at action potential voltage
2. take all calcium out of the bath
3. do calcium imaging with a calcium sensitive dye and see where calcium goes
Term
extra neurotransmitter is cleaned up by _____
Definition
glia
Term
2 ways vesicles can be made
Definition
1. in cell body
2. via presynaptic membrane due to clathrin activity
Term
how would you test if there is local recycling of neurotransmitter from extracellular space?
Definition
introduce a tagged chemical into extracellular space & follow it to see if you can eventually see it taken up into vesicles
Term
4 things that form a snare complex to dock the vesicle
Definition
1. synaptobrevin (from vesicle)
2. synaptotagmin (from vesicle)
3. syntaxin (from presynaptic membrane)
4. snap 25 (from presynaptic membrane)
Term
how would you test importance of various parts of the snare complex?
Definition
introduce a competitive molecule for binding
Term
how does botox affect presynaptic terminal?
Definition
attacks components of the snare complex
Term
3 diseases that affect the presynaptic terminal
Definition
1. making vesicles very small --> less neurotransmitter released for each vesicle fused with membrane
2. inhibiting vesicle recycling
3. triggering premature vesicle fusion (when they don't have neurotransmitter)
Term
clathrin
Definition
protein that buds out presynaptic membrane to make more vesicles after fusion
Term
ionotropic receptor
Definition
let ions through
Term
metabotropic receptor
Definition
do not let ions through
Term
structure of the nicotinic ACh receptor
Definition
5 subunits come together to form a pore with ACh binding sites on the subunits
Term
subthreshold EPSPs will sum up to cause _______
Definition
an action potential
Term
how does synapse location affect its influence on postsynaptic potentials?
Definition
closer to soma = greater influence
Term
snare complexes
Definition
dock the vesicle
Term
2 things that make up ACh
Definition
1. acetate
2. choline
Term
ACh receptors let in _______
Definition
sodium
Term
ACh receptors are most notable for being on _______
Definition
muscle
Term
implication of postsynaptic depolarization usually being sub-threshold
Definition
needs to sum up to cause an action potential
Term
where are postsynaptic densities usually found?
Definition
dendritic spines
Term
activation of NMDA receptors --> can use calcium imaging to see ________
Definition
calcium flowing in
Term
does the name of receptor always match name of neurotranmsitter?
Definition
no!
Term
3 monoamines
Definition
1. dopamine
2. norepinephrine
3. epinephrine
Term
myasthenia gravis: repeated muscle use --> ?
Definition
lack of response
Term
metabotropic receptors rely on _______
Definition
internal g proteins
Term
muscarinic ACh receptors
Definition
responds to ACh but no ions pass...instead reacts via g proteins
Term
are metabotropic receptors faster or slower acting than ionotropic?
Definition
slower, more modulatory
Term
2 ionotropic glutamate receptors
Definition
1. ampa
2. nmda
Term
metabotropic glutamate receptor
Definition
mGluR
Term
leftover glutamate in synaptic cleft is cleaned up by ________
Definition
astrocyte
Term
presynaptic makes glutamate from glutamine via _______
Definition
glutaminase
Term
AMPA current looks like?
Definition
sharp quick EPSC inward sodium current
Term
NMDA current looks like?
Definition
slower kinetics, still inward EPSC
Term
4 steps in activation of AMPA receptor
Definition
1. glutamate binds
2. receptor closes in around it
3. conformational change to pull apart transmembrane domain
4. sodium can pass through pore
Term
AMPA receptor is specific for ________
Definition
sodium! (selective)
Term
NMDA receptor has magnesium block at depolarized or hyperpolarized potentials
Definition
hyperpolarized
Term
3 things that flow through NMDA receptors at depolarized potentials
Definition
1. sodium in
2. potassium out
3. calcium in
Term
are NMDA receptor kinetics more like ionotropic or metabotropic?
Definition
metabotropic (even though it is an ionotropic receptor)
Term
2 things NMDA needs to work
Definition
1. depolarization
2. presence of glutamate
Term
what does calcium binding site do on NMDA receptor?
Definition
when calcium is bound, prevents desensitization
Term
________ causes conformational change in NMDA receptor to try to open pore when bound
Definition
glutamate
Term
2 antagonist drugs that can block NMDA receptors
Definition
1. APV
2. DCKA
Term
can glycine open NMDA receptors?
Definition
yes!
Term
2 receptors that are the basis for long-term potentiation
Definition
1. AMPAR
2. NMDAR
Term
nitric oxide (NO) gets released with _______ process
Definition
LTP (NMDA specifically)
Term
nitric oxide allows postsynaptic cell to modulate presynaptic cell to increase or decrease glutamate release?
Definition
increase
Term
metabotropic glutamate receptors activate _______
Definition
g proteins!
Term
3 kinds of GABA receptors
Definition
1. A
2. B
3. C
Term
is GABA thought of as typically inhibitory or excitatory?
Definition
inhibitory
Term
GABA & glycine are cleaned up by _______
Definition
astrocyte
Term
stimulate presynaptic GABAergic neuron --> see _______ in postsynaptic neuron
Definition
inhibition of firing
Term
4 examples of other chemicals that activate ionotropic GABA receptors (agonists)
Definition
1. benzodiazepine
2. ketamine
3. inhalant anesthetics
4. ethanol
Term
immature neuron --> open GABA allows chloride to flow _______
Definition
OUT
Term
mature neuron --> open GABA allows chloride to flow _______
Definition
IN
Term
are catecholamines all ionotropic or metabotropic?
Definition
metabotropic!
Term
catecholamine neurotransmitters act in a ______ manner
Definition
neuromodulatory
Term
2 places that make dopamine
Definition
1. substantia nigra
2. ventral tegmental area
Term
2 things dopamine is very important for
Definition
1. attention
2. reward
Term
metabotropic receptors for catecholamine neurotransmitters use _______ to cause effects
Definition
GPCRs
Term
2 metabotropic monoamines that aren't catecholamines
Definition
1. serotonin
2. histamine
Term
where is serotonin made?
Definition
Raphe nucleus
Term
what is serotonin important for?
Definition
modulating arousal state (why it goes all over the brain)
Term
are neuropeptides or monoamines more diverse in terms of amino acid sequence?
Definition
neuropeptides
Term
are neuropeptides all ionotropic or metabotropic?
Definition
metabotropic
Term
another name for neuropeptides
Definition
hormones
Term
4 ways to make an addictive drug
Definition
1. prevent reuptake as well as desensitization
2. cause presynaptic cell to release more dopamine/serotonin etc.
3. ideal neurotransmitters to effect: dopamine
4. increase the amount of receptors
Term
speed of calcium entering vs leaving a cell
Definition
Ca in is quick, Ca out is slow
Term
LTP presynaptic terminal releases ______
Definition
glutamate
Term
dendritic spine of postsynaptic neuron in LTP has ________ receptors that bind glutamate
Definition
AMPA & NMDA
Term
LTP eventually results in insertion of additional _______
Definition
AMPA receptors
Term
the brain's ability to reorganize itself in response to stimuli (environment, injury, physiological changes)
Definition
plasticity
Term
plasticity
Definition
learning
Term
repeated spikes in presynaptic membrane potential --> _______ in postsynaptic membrane potential
Definition
larger response spikes
Term
amount of facilitation tends to decrease as the time interval between stimuli increases or decreases?
Definition
increases
Term
do you visualize higher or lower CaMKII activity after stimulation compared to control?
Definition
higher
Term
4 steps in initial phase of LTP
Definition
1. calcium enters dendritic spines of postsynaptic neuron via NMDA receptor
2. activates calcium calmodulin in the cell
3. activates protein kinases
4. affects AMPA receptors
Term
4 steps in late phase of LTP
Definition
1. protein kinases activate cAMP
2. activates protein kinase A
3. activates CREB in the nucleus
4. transcriptional regulators & synapse growth proteins that affect AMPA & NMDA receptors
Term
after LTP, you see more ______
Definition
spines
Term
in what condition will some synapses show no responses to stimulation?
Definition
certain hyperpolarized voltages
Term
example of a silent synapse
Definition
NMDA-R only
Term
4 steps in circuit of hippocampus
Definition
1. perforant path (from entorhinal cortex)
2. granule cell (in dentate gyrus)
3. CA3 pyramidal cell (in CA3) via mossy fibers
4. CA1 pyramidal cell (in CA1) via Schaffer collaterals
Term
associativity of LTP
Definition
pathway 1 onto neuron: strong stimulation --> synapse strengthened

pathway 2 onto neuron: weak stimulation but at same time as pathway 1 strong stimulation --> synapse strengthened
Term
presynaptic terminal in LTD in hippocampus
Definition
releases glutamate
Term
3 steps in dendritic spine of postsynaptic neuron in hippocampus LTD
Definition
1. sodium in through AMPA receptor
2. calcium in through NMDA receptor --> affects protein phosphatases --> affects AMPA receptors/other substrates
3. clathrin pulls receptors out of the membrane into the sorting endosome
Term
LTD in cerebellum: stimulate ______ & record from _______
Definition
climbing fiber; Purkinje
Term
climbing fiber depolarizes membrane potential --> synapse with associated parallel fiber is strengthened or weakened?
Definition
weakened
Term
if you pair climbing fiber & parallel fiber input --> parallel fiber EPSP amplitude will ________
Definition
decrease & stay down over time
Term
where is inferior olivary nucleus located?
Definition
within brainstem
Term
functional role of olivary nucleus
Definition
motor timing/motor learning
Term
if the cerebellum sends information to an incorrect movement, the _______ will correct it so that movement isn't done in the future
Definition
IO
Term
what encodes for corrective adjustments in movement?
Definition
IO
Term
how do climbing fibers respond to injury?
Definition
they show remarkable regeneration
Term
dorsal root ganglion is located where?
Definition
in the spine
Term
injury to dorsal root ganglion causes?
Definition
constant pain, signals being sent to brain without true stimulus (such as pain, intense temperature sensation, etc.)
Term
dorsal root ganglion is important for ______
Definition
transmitting sensory information via two main kinds of neurons (mechanosensors & nociceptors)
Term
hypoglossal nerve
Definition
controls the tongue/mouth
Term
vagus nerve
Definition
reflexes such as gag reflex/slow heart/sweating
Term
accessory nerve
Definition
hold up head/hands etc.
Term
injury to reticular formation --> ?
Definition
dizziness, narcoleptic episodes, problems with balance/eyesight, problems with pain modulation (innocuous things seem painful)
Term
reticular formation = bundle of nuclei within the brainstem necessary for ______
Definition
sleep/consciousness
Term
where is the pons located?
Definition
group of neurons just below the midbrain, above medulla oblongata
Term
pons works as a massive switchboard connection between _______ & _______
Definition
cerebral cortex & cerebellum
Term
over 90% of neurons coming down from midbrain synapse through the _______
Definition
pons
Term
pons are important for ______
Definition
breathing
Term
central pontine myelinolysis
Definition
difficulty swallowing, slurred speech, hallucinations
Term
what causes locked-in syndrome?
Definition
blockage around the pons
Term
where is the zona incerta located?
Definition
just above subthalamic nucleus
Term
zona incerta is involved in what response?
Definition
fear
Term
PD symptoms can be ameliorated by stimulating _______ with DBS
Definition
zona incerta
Term
facial nerve
Definition
facial control
Term
vestibulocochlear nerve
Definition
inner ear, body balance, posture
Term
glossopharyngeal nerve
Definition
swallowing, taste
Term
3 cranial verges that come from pons
Definition
1. facial
2. vestibulocochlear
3. glossopharyngeal
Term
where is basal forebrain located?
Definition
in front of/below striatum
Term
major cholinergic output of CNS
Definition
basal forebrain
Term
injury to basal forebrain can cause ______
Definition
problems with brain cell communication, impaired learning, impaired memory
Term
basal forebrain has substantial connections to ______
Definition
hippocampus
Term
trochlear nerve
Definition
upward & downward movement of eye & eye roll
Term
trigeminal nerve
Definition
provide branches to different parts of the face (mid third)
Term
abducens nerve
Definition
moves eyes from side to side
Term
what test is used to test your optic nerve?
Definition
Ishihara
Term
where does your oculomotor nerve run?
Definition
front of midbrain (oculomotor nucleus & accessory parasymapthetic neurons) --> back of eye sockets
Term
mechanosensation
Definition
touch, pressure, vibration
Term
thermosenstation
Definition
temperature
Term
nociception
Definition
pain
Term
why are mechanoreceptors used to feel touch?
Definition
they are sensitive to the movement of the membrane
Term
2 different kinds of skin
Definition
1. glabrous
2. hairy
Term
slowly adapting receptors
Definition
constantly firing throughout the stimulus
Term
rapidly adapting receptors
Definition
fires at onset of stimulus & again at offset...not throughout the touch
Term
larger axon = faster or slower conduction velocity
Definition
faster
Term
the portion of sensory space that can elicit a response in a neuron
Definition
receptive field
Term
moving two objects closer together on your skin & poking --> ?
Definition
they will eventually feel like one
Term
receptor endings in skin --> ______
Definition
dorsal root ganglion cells in spinal cord
Term
dermatome
Definition
area of skin innervated by the dorsal roots of a single spinal segemtn
Term
4 steps in main touch pathway
Definition
1. sensory afferents
2. gracile/cuneate nucleus (crosses midline here)
3. thalamus
4. S1
Term
topographic mapping of the body's surface sensations onto the brain
Definition
somatotopy
Term
where is the somatosensory cortex (S1)?
Definition
along top of cortex
Term
are the representations of different parts of the body in the brain uniform in terms of their touch reception?
Definition
no
Term
are younger or older brains more plastic?
Definition
younger
Term
what system is very highly represented in rat-unuclus?
Definition
whisker system
Term
do all rodents have the same number of whiskers in the same position?
Definition
yes
Term
how is barrel cortex (S1) organized?
Definition
each barrel corresponds to a specific whisker
Term
is homunculus conserved in somatosensory cortex?
Definition
yes
Term
perception
Definition
the cognitive process that goes along with sensation
Term
phantom limb pain
Definition
you feel things on your missing hand but you cannot address the sensation
Term
pros & cons of pain
Definition
pro: serves as a learning experience to avoid something harmful

con: can be overdone
Term
pain perception is based in part by processing of _______ inputs
Definition
nociceptive
Term
a delta fibers
Definition
first pain
Term
c fibers
Definition
second pain
Term
proprioception
Definition
in muscle spindle
Term
4 cells responsible for touch
Definition
1. Merkel
2. Meissner
3. Pacinian
4. Ruffini
Term
is acute pain felt with more or less myelin?
Definition
more
Term
are c fibers slower or faster than a delta?
Definition
slower
Term
why does referred pain exist?
Definition
parts of the nervous system develop together
Term
substance P
Definition
signals pain (the cognitive perception of pain)
Term
pain signal decussates in the ______
Definition
spinal cord
Term
is pain signal carried up the spinal cord on the same or opposite side as senstation?
Definition
opposite
Term
mechanoreceptor afferents go up same or opposite side on dorsal column
Definition
same
Term
why is difference in pain vs touch going up spinal cord evolutionarily advantageous?
Definition
if you get a lesion on one side of the spinal cord, at least one of these signals will still be able to come up from that side of the body
Term
capsaicin
Definition
molecule found in spicy peppers
Term
how does capsaicin work?
Definition
goes through the membrane & binds to inside of a receptor to cause it to open & is perceived as heat (what it normally responds to)!
Term
3 receptors activated by intense cold
Definition
1. TRP-M8
2. TRP-A1
3. Na(V)1.8
Term
why do you feel pain as you start to warm up?
Definition
c fibers can fire once they are no longer numbed out
Term
3 steps in sensory-discriminative (first pain)
Definition
1. anterolateral system
2. ventral posterior lateral nucleus
3. somatosensory cortex (S1, S2)
Term
how is reticular formation important for pain?
Definition
important for arousal --> forces you to pay attention to the pain
Term
how is amygdala important for pain?
Definition
emotional --> how you're processing what happened with the pain/to cause the pain
Term
PAG does a lot of what signal?
Definition
descending modulating pain signal
Term
2 things descending information in response to pain can do
Definition
1. cause muscle reactions to respond to pain
2. turn on inhibitory interneuron to turn off incoming pain signal in spinal cord
Term
GABAergic PAG neuron contains _______ receptors
Definition
mu opioid
Term
6 reasons you may not feel pain even if a c fiber neuron fires strongly
Definition
1. if you apply another stimulus (ex. pressure to the area) you may not feel it
2. if you have a spinal cord injury the signal may not get to the brain
3. the descending pain pathway may be turning it off via an interneuron
4. somatosensory part of the brain may be damaged
5. insufficient signal - just one neuron
6. perception is cognitively interpreted otherwise
Term
4 steps in common sensory modality pathway
Definition
1. receptors
2. projection to thalamus
3. thalamic relay to primary cortex
4. secondary cortices
Term
frequency of sound waves --> ?
Definition
pitch
Term
amplitude of sound waves --> ?
Definition
volume
Term
cochlea contains ______ nerve
Definition
auditory
Term
cochlea is filled with
Definition
endolymph
Term
2 "windows" in cochlea
Definition
1. oval
2. round
Term
basilar membrane moves up & down in response to _______
Definition
vibrations/endolymph movement
Term
signals from outer hair cells are efferent meaning they _______
Definition
send them to the brain
Term
signals to inner hair cells are afferent meaning they _______
Definition
get info from brain
Term
when you pay visual attention to something, does your sensitivity to sound increase or decrease?
Definition
increase
Term
tinnitus
Definition
high pitched sound that doesn't have an actual grounding in the real world
Term
tympanic membrane vibrates in response to _______
Definition
sound waves
Term
stapedius
Definition
translates the vibration from tympanic membrane to oval window of cochlea
Term
4 steps in neural signal of sound
Definition
1. sound induced vibration
2. shearing force (back & forth movement) on cilia
3. activates stretch receptors
4. neural signal of sound
Term
to different neurons response to different sounds?
Definition
yes
Term
do higher frequency pitches (tighter together waves) travel well down membrane?
Definition
no
Term
how do potassium ions flow in hair cells (hearing)?
Definition
in to depolarize the cell
Term
what is the advantage of hair cells for hearing not needing APs?
Definition
we get an incredible amount of temporal resolution
Term
why don't you need APs in hair cells for hearing?
Definition
cell actually sits at around -45 mV
Term
break the round window (make it shut) --> ?
Definition
can't hear well
Term
break one of the bones in the middle of the ear --> ?
Definition
can't hear at all
Term
cut auditory nerve --> ?
Definition
can't hear at all
Term
higher vs lower frequency layout in cochlea?
Definition
higher frequencies will be transmitted towards connection with window, lower frequencies will be transmitted in the middle of the spiral
Term
3 steps in auditory pathway
Definition
1. sound comes up through pons
2. decussates in a parallel fashion (signal splits where some decussates & some doesn't)
3. up to sensory cortex (doesn't stop at thalamus!)
Term
how do you identify where a sound is coming from?
Definition
sound comes into both cochleas but will hit the one first that it is closer in space to the sound
Term
MSO
Definition
the place where neurons are where spatial orientation of hearing happens
Term
MSO & LSO are nuclei in the ______
Definition
brainstem
Term
LSO gets stimulated based upon _______
Definition
incoming sound intensity
Term
why are owls really good at hearing?
Definition
their ears are located at different places & can turn their heads to orient them differently
Term
MSO & LSO send their information to _______
Definition
auditory cortex (where sounds are put together to be perceived)
Term
how can you pay attention to specific voice when multiple people are talking?
Definition
sensation vs perception!
Term
your sense of balance
Definition
vestibular system
Term
semi-circular canals
Definition
responsible for figuring out where your head is which will pretty much tell us where our body is in the world
Term
why does calcium carbonate crystal coat the hair cells in the semi-circular canals?
Definition
causes them to move more intensely & also in response to gravity as opposed to stretch
Term
light comes in through ______
Definition
pupil/lens
Term
back side of the eye is covered by ______
Definition
retina
Term
information goes out to the brain from eye via ________
Definition
optic nerve
Term
3 kinds of vision
Definition
1. emmetropia (normal)
2. myopia (nearsighted)
3. hyperopia (farsighted)
Term
fovea
Definition
the center of our vision
Term
optic disk
Definition
head of the optic nerve
Term
retina
Definition
a series of neurons the same thickness as about a few sheets of paper
Term
retina only response to ______
Definition
light
Term
why does the retina have 5 different kinds of neurons?
Definition
all have distinct shapes/functions to help the eye integrate different kinds of information
Term
two types of photoreceptors
Definition
1. rods = light VS dark vision
2. cones = color
Term
photoreceptors have many _______
Definition
mitochondria
Term
where does light come into photoreceptors?
Definition
from bottom
Term
what cleans out disks that break down in the eye?
Definition
epithelial tissue
Term
what serves as a couple layers of cells to protect rods/cones
Definition
epithelial tissue
Term
why does epithelial tissue have pigment?
Definition
we want light to be reflected back
Term
in the dark, ion channels allow ________ to come in
Definition
sodium & calcium
Term
why are ion channels open in the dark?
Definition
cyclic GMP is attached
Term
neurons are depolarized in the light or dark?
Definition
dark
Term
how does light turn off ion channels?
Definition
causes transducen to activate PDE which cleaves cyclic GMP
Term
one advantage of eyes being active in the dark & hyperpolarized in light
Definition
eyes are using less energy when you are in light --> when the rest of your body is more active your eyes are taking up less energy
Term
neuron sends out less glutamate signals in the presence of light or dark?
Definition
light
Term
are cones fast or slow?
Definition
fast transient on followed by a fast transient off
Term
3 main kinds of cones
Definition
1. red (peaks at 564 nm wavelength)
2. green (peaks at 534)
3. blue (peaks at 420)
Term
do the types of cones have a wide or small range of wavelengths they activate to?
Definition
wide
Term
which type of cone came the earliest evolutionarily?
Definition
blue (short)
Term
why do people have color blindness?
Definition
they're not actually missing a cone, it's that the colors that the cones respond to have overlapped so they send identical signals to a given wavelength of color
Term
trichromatic theory for the retina
Definition
3 types of cones
Term
maximally optimal range for rods peaks at _______
Definition
498 (but is pretty wide)
Term
can people have small variances in their actual cones?
Definition
yes
Term
do some animals have more cones than we do?
Definition
yes!
Term
huge concentration of cones at the _______
Definition
fovea
Term
rods concentration peak ________
Definition
near fovea but a little bit out to the side on either direction
Term
why don't we have photoreceptors around the whole eye?
Definition
we don't need to see everywhere, so this is a way to conserve energy
Term
are there many or a few cells between choroid & receptors in fovea?
Definition
very few
Term
do we have rod nuclei in the fovea?
Definition
no!
Term
retinitis pigmentosa
Definition
choroid produces too much pigment --> leaks onto surface of eye --> person loses ability to use rods first --> eventually goes blind
Term
photoreceptors release more glutamate in light or dark?
Definition
dark
Term
2 kinds of ganglion cells
Definition
1. off center bipolar
2. on center bipolar
Term
on center bipolar = ionotropic or metabotropic glutamate receptors?
Definition
metabotropic
Term
off center bipolar = ionotropic or metabotropic glutamate receptors?
Definition
ionotropic
Term
shine light --> off bipolar cells are depolarized or hyperpolarized?
Definition
hyperpolarized
Term
shine light --> on bipolar cells are depolarized or hyperpolarized?
Definition
depolarized
Term
how do horizontal cells work as a feedback?
Definition
when their associate neurons are active, they turn off the cells around them
Term
horizontal cells work via _______
Definition
lateral inhibition
Term
how does the spread of horizontal cells change from fovea --> periphery?
Definition
increase
Term
amacrine cells
Definition
connect various kinds of cells with the retinal ganglion cells
Term
what cells allow for high-def viewing of motion?
Definition
amacrine
Term
visual information bifurcation happens at the _______
Definition
optic chiasm
Term
_______ is composed of photoreceptors which synapse onto bipolar cells which synapse onto amacrine cells
Definition
retina
Term
horizontal cells do _______ inhibition
Definition
lateral
Term
fovea only has _______
Definition
cones
Term
are the 6 cortical layers conserved across the entire brain?
Definition
yes
Term
what is lateral inhibition at the level of the eye important for?
Definition
edge detection
Term
integrating signals from both eyes gives us _______
Definition
depth perception
Term
optic chiasm
Definition
where information from eyes crosses over
Term
LGN
Definition
takes information from optic nerve & ships it off to primary visual areas
Term
are different areas of the brain innervated by different layers of the LGN?
Definition
yes
Term
chop off the optic nerve --> ?
Definition
lose input of all information from that eye
Term
lesion optic chiasm --> ?
Definition
lose peripheral vision
Term
lesion the optic tract (just after optic chiasm) --> ?
Definition
lose one visual field
Term
lesion dorsal projections from LGN up to primary cortex --> ?
Definition
lose your dorsal visual field
Term
lesion projections from the LGN to the striate cortex (very far in the back) --> ?
Definition
lose that side of vision BUT you retain your fovea
Term
projections from LGN are responsible for _______
Definition
flipping information from the eye so that the cortical representation of the world is the right way
Term
Edinger-Westphal nucleus
Definition
controls pupillary response
Term
V1 layer 4
Definition
takes in a lot of information & sends it out to many layers & many other places
Term
V1 layer 2/3
Definition
sends to cortex
Term
V1 layer 5
Definition
goes to the superior colliculus
Term
V1 layer 6
Definition
goes to the LGN
Term
can neurons in V1 be specific for orientation in a specific spot?
Definition
yes
Term
why is the pattern of orientation selectivity repeated across space in cortical columns of V1?
Definition
you can sense edges in various parts of your view
Term
importance of the layers of LGN
Definition
each layer gets specific visual input & sends information to the specific cortical columns
Term
does information from both eyes mix in the LGN?
Definition
no!
Term
dorsal visual pathway
Definition
the "where" pathway
Term
ventral visual pathway
Definition
the "what" pathway
Term
inferior temporal cortex (IT) = "where" or "what" pathway
Definition
what
Term
IT responds to _______
Definition
faces
Term
why can higher order processing remember where things were in visual space?
Definition
decision making requires acquiring evidence over time to it needs higher order processing
Term
what you smell are _______
Definition
chemicals
Term
is smell specific or a spectrum?
Definition
specific
Term
is smell old or new?
Definition
old, evolutionary
Term
are smell receptors ionotropic or metabotropic?
Definition
metabotropic
Term
indole smell in low vs high concentrations
Definition
low: smells floral

high: smells putrid (like rotting vegetables)
Term
l-carvone vs d-carvone smell
Definition
d = spearment, c = caraway

just a slight difference in conformation of same chemical!
Term
olfactory bulb sits above _______
Definition
cribriform plate
Term
olfactory system is protected by ________
Definition
olfactory epithelial tissue
Term
olfactory neurons project to ________
Definition
olfactory bulb
Term
olfactory nerve goes into the _______
Definition
brain
Term
does smell involve relay in the thalamus?
Definition
no
Term
is sense of space encoded in sense of smell?
Definition
no
Term
are smell receptors regenerated?
Definition
yes; constantly
Term
pros & cons of mucus
Definition
pros: works to keep neuron safe as best as it can

cons: can harbor harmful things like biofilm
Term
neurons sense smell with _______
Definition
cilia that have receptors in them
Term
what kind of odorants can we smell
Definition
airborne!
Term
odorant transduction works via ionotropic or metabotropic receptors?
Definition
metabotropic GPCR
Term
do neurons respond differently to different scent compounds?
Definition
yes
Term
are some neurons more specific for smells than others?
Definition
yes
Term
are smell projecting neurons myelinated?
Definition
no
Term
neurons tuned to different scent compounds project to different _______
Definition
glomeruli
Term
why do other animals have better sense of smell?
Definition
larger parts of their brains dedicated to olfactory bulbs
Term
do different parts of the brain process different smells?
Definition
yes
Term
example of an inborn difference in smell perception
Definition
differential patterns of activation in the hypothalamus of a typical human female & male respond differently to estrogen
Term
do we have a vomeronasal system?
Definition
no (other organisms do)
Term
how other organisms smell water-bound chemicals
Definition
vomeronasal system
Term
why is the vomeronasal organ on the bottom of the nasal cavity?
Definition
liquid will fall to the bottom compared to the airborne chemicals
Term
human taste system
Definition
taste buds are distributed around the tongue that project to their secondary neurons up to thalamus and out to taste cortices
Term
is taste graded?
Definition
yes; like other senses
Term
why are tongues/taste buds invaginated?
Definition
increases surface area to allow us to taste more
Term
taste pore has several different types of taste cells that project to the ________
Definition
gustatory centers of the brain
Term
why do taste buds need regeneration?
Definition
vulnerability to outside environment
Term
how do we sense the five different taste types (sour, sweet, bitter, salty, umami)
Definition
taken in on different parts of the tongue
Term
do different sense of taste rely upon different receptors?
Definition
yes
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