genetics

nervous sstem

neuron

brain

measuring brain

endocrine system

different forms of a gene

EXAMPLE: blue/brown/green eye allel

show their effect even if there is only one copy of that gene in the pair

EXAMPLE: one brown eye allele and one blue eye allele= brown eyes because brown eyes are dominant

shows its effects only when both alleles are the same

a person will have blue eyes only if they inherit an allele for blue eyes from EACH parent

1. Relationship between specific genes and behavior is complex
2. Most specific behaviors derive from dozens or hundreds of genes (not one or two)
3. By studying twins and adoptees, behavioral geneticists may disentangle the contributions of heredity and environment to behavior
4. The environment influences how and when genes affect behavior (epigenetics)

no single gene causes anxiety, it is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors

few cases: specific gene guarantees outcome; but only physical not behavioral

• traits = influenced by many genes
• few human traits result from single gene
• tend to be physical not behavioral
• monogenic transmission: hereditary passing o of traits determined by a single gene
• Polygenic transmission: many genes interact to create a single characteristic (personality/skin color/height/weight)

extent to which characteristics are influenced by genetics

use..

1. twin
2. adoption
3. twin adoption
4. gene-by-environment

studies

compare monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal)

study into heritability

EXAMPLE: on avg. fraternal twins have 1/2 as many alike genes as identical, so if a trait is genetically influenced, identical twins should be more alike in that trait than franternal twins

• Compare child to biological and adopted parents

• measures heritabiliity b/c if child is more like their adoptive parent in a certain trait then environment is most influential, but if they are more like their biological parent then genetics are more influential

• or if even amount from both, they are basically the same

compare twins raised together and seperated

balance between twin and adoption studies b/c both have their limitations

EXAMPLE: if genes play strong role in trait:

-similarity = strongest in ident. raised together

-identical twins raised apart

-siblings and biological parent offspring raised together

-weakest in adopted siblings and adoptive parent offspring

• look at genetic variation in genome

• comparing genetic markers to assess how genetic differences interact with environment to produce certain behaviors in some people but not others

• interaction between environment and genetic expression
• environmental factors can turn genes on and off
• How genes change according to a person's behaviors
• usually studied on non-humans

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous system

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

involuntary

• sympathetic
• parasympathetic

ACTIVATION of nervous system in emergencies

AROUSING

EXAMPLE: a robber enters your house, you might sense your heartbeat increases, blood pressure increases, inhibits bladder, allows blood flow to sex organs

PARA-paralyzed (relax/not moving)

Calming sensations

relaxes, returns to normal rest state

EXAMPLE: after robber leaves and police show up you might sense; heartbeat slows, stimulates digestion activity, bladder contracts, stimulates ejaculation in males

Glial

Neurons

serve teh primary function of holdin gCNS together

structure, support, promote efficient communication between neurons

reove cellular debris

important role in communication between neurons

cells that process and transmit info throughout nervous system

receive, integrate and generate messages in brain

1. neurons = building blocks of N.S.; all major structures of brain are composed of neurons
2. info travels within neuron in form of an electrical signal by action potentials
3. info transmitted between neurons by neurotransmitters

Types of Neurons

SIMM

Sensory

Interneurons

Motor

Mirror

transmit info from senses

eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin

everything we do that activates a sense gets sent to the sensory neurons to be transfered to the brain to be processed

• connect only with other neurons
• usually connect neurons in one part of brain with neurons in another part
• some receive info from sensory neurons and transmit it to motor neurons for action

EXAMPLE: touched a sharp knife, interneurons in spinal cord would receive pain info from sensory neurons in fingers and communicate it to motor neurons in muscles of arm so you could pull your hand away.

**most common kind neuron in brain

transmit information to motor movement

commands from brain and carry to muscles in body

become active when we see someone doing something

like observational learning

Cell body with nucleus

needed for cell maintenance and function

coming off soma is the axon also the dendrites

attatched to Soma

transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron

covered by the myelin sheath (like insulation) so nerve impulses travel more efficiently

coming off axon = synapse; then terminal buttons

connected to the soma

fingerlike projections that receive incoming messages form other neurons

part that connects the axon to the other neuron

where info is transmitted from one neuron to another

attached to synapse = terminal buttons

knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters

connect to dendrites

negative melabolting (charge) within an axon

has the potential to fire

when decides to fire; (aka) action at synapse

goes from negative to positive because it gets depolarized

then goes back to negaive by getting REpoarized

boltage is too negative to fire and needs time to get back to "resting potential"

1.) resting potential (-70)

2.) DEpolarization (from negative to positive)

(action potential)

3.) REpolarization (from positive to negative)

4.) Refractory period (too low to fire)

5/1.) resting potential (-70)

space between terminal buttons and neuron receiving sight

resting potential (neg charge, ability to fire)

Action potential (when neuron actually fires)

graded potential (little "opinions" get addded up to decide the fate (to fire or not to fire)

tiny sacs in teh terminal buttons that contain neurotransmitters

receiving neuron

binds with neurotransmitters

different neurotransmitter types bind with only certain receptor sites

like a LOCK AND KEY

-slows ANS activity -autonomic (involuntary)

-eating and drinking

-***neuromuscular juncion (spinal cord to muscles)

Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

-arousal/mood

-voluntary muscle movement

-excess correlates with psychosis (too much = skitzo, delusions, etc)

-increases ANS (autonomic nervous system) involuntary

-the fight/flight idea

-also called adrenaline sometimes

-arouses bodily systems (heart rate)

important role in sympathetic nervous system

-energizing bodily systems and increasing MENTAL arousal and alertness

-associated with ADHD

everywhere in the brain

-controlling emotional states

-**esp. anger/anxiety/depression

one of most wide ranges of effects on behavior of all neurotransmitters

ppl who are often anxious/depressed have low seratonin levels

so drugs that block reuptake of seratonin are taken for ^^^

-primary inhibitory neurotransmitter (DO NOT FIRE)

**GABBI would never say to shoot a gun

-slows CNS

- low amounts = anxiety

- excessive amounts = intoxication b/c gaba leads to relaxing sometimes unconscience states (or death)

-without GABA CNS would have no "brakes"

opposite of GABA

-primary excitatory neurotransmitter

-FIRE! glucose is bad and so is fire?

-very important in early brain development

-facilitates growth and change in neurons and migration of neurons to different sites in teh brain

-can tell difference between important and not imp info.

-also learning and memory

enzymes bind with neurotransmitters (nt) and destroy it

used for common NT easy for body to produce, like ACH

opposite is the reuptake of nt

-nt transported back to presynaptic neuron and stored in vesicles for future use

-used for nts difficult for the body to produce

way of removing excess NTs in teh synaptic cleft, and those that bind to dendrites and eventually disengage

-Hind brain

-mid brain

-Forebrain

further you move up, the more complicated the functions get

Medulla

Cerebellum

Pons

basic life function, staying alive

-breathing, heart rate, blook pressure

reflexes like coughing, swallowing, sneezing, and vomiting

means bridge

-like the bridge between the spinal cord and the brain (lecture)

-bridge between lower brain regions and midbrain/forebrain

-info about body movementand various sensations get relayed from cortex via the pons to the cerebellum

involved in

-body movement, balance, coordination, fine-tuning motor skills, cognitive activities like learning and memory

-higher level functioning (processed learning)

-more neurons than any other single part of the brain

starting point for lots of NTs

lots basic functioning and processing

orienting reflex, seeing/hearing things with the reaction to turn and see them

-process auditory and visual information

-initiate voluntary body movement

people with Parkinson's disease struggle with midbrain functioning because the nt dopamine is not available so they shake alot

-in the midbrain

-critical for waking up and falling asleep

-network of nerves runs through the hindbrain and midbrain

involved in arousal

found by the use of a cat

larges part of human brain (last to evolve)

-cerebrum

-thalamus

-limbic system

-control cognitive, sensory,, and motor function an d

-regulate temperature, reproductive functions

-eating, sleeping and

-display of emotions

usually BILATERAL (two of them one on each side)

• receives inputs from ears, skin, eyes, or taste buds
•  relays sensory info to part of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing that sense
• Sensory relay station (like a post office)
• -top of hind brain (part of mid brain)

sense of smell = only that doesn't have thalamatic relay

important for emotions and motivations

-hypothalamus

-hippocampus

-Amygdala

-cingulate gyrus

limbic-i want to be limber so i need to be MOTIVATED

directly below the thalamus

-master regulator of almost all major drives and motives we have (hunger, thirst, temp, sexual)

-controls pituitary gland = resp. for producing/controlling hormones our body produces

-surrounded by hippocampus

surrounds hypothalamus

-vital role in learning/memory

-sensory info from sense organs goes to hippocampus

-if important enough, they are processed in hippo and eventually establish as memories

-

-learning changes the brain; as shown in the study on taxi cab drivers in london

-directly in front of hippo is the Amygdala

directly in front of hippocampus, which surrounds hypothalamus, which is under the thalamas

-almond shaped structure

-connections with many other areas of brain

-hypothalamus = autonomic N.S

-hippocampus = learning and memory

-Thalamus = contains neurons that receive info from sense organs

-cerebral cortex

-due to location=very imp. for determ emotional significance (esp fear)

means belt ridge (latin)

-middle of brain and is impotant for attention and cognitive control

-like when ppl first trying to solve a difficult problem the cingulate gyrus is activiated

-upper level emotional processing

PAIN!

cinge/singe a body part would be very PAINful

important for voluntary motor movement

-collection structures surrounding thalamus

-parkinsons and huntington's disease affect functioning of neurons in this region

jerky, uncontrollable movements

-considered part of limbic system

resides on both sides of the thalamus and above the limbic system

connect to: cerebrell cortex, thalamus, and brain stem

Where the two hemispheres connect

-provides channel for extensive communication between hemispheres

each of large halves of brain that cre covered with convolutions

-uppermost portion of the brain

-composed of 4 main sections called lobes (bilateral) located on both left and right sides

1.)frontal 2.)temporal 3.)parietal 4.)occipital

outer most layer of the brain

most human thought, planning an dperception and consciousness takes place

"what makes us most human"

higher level processing

executive functions (planning/memory/attention)

allows you to carry out motor functioning

"makes us human"

-connected to the most parts of the brain (able to integrate much brain activity)

-motor cortex

• top and rear of brain
• sensation and perception of touch
• visual and spacial awarenes where things are in relation to space
• allows us to imagine what something would look like flipped upside down, or spun in a circle
• sensory information processed at port that meets with the frontal lobe

-somatasensory cortex

in frontal lobe

twin to the somatosensory cortex

-stimulating part of the brain caused teh body to move

-last place info is processed before getting sent to the body

-discovered by Edward Hitzig in soldiers and carried out by Gustav Fritsch; found the idea of contralaterality

-extremely localized (each cell corresponds to body part)

found in parietal lobe

-twin to motor cortex

-senses feeling and touching

different parts of the strip are activated when different parts of the body are touched

-idea that the opposite side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

discovered by hitzig and fritsch

processing auditory information

language, music, etc.

right behind the ears (below frontal and parietal)

auditory cortex

also involved in memory and emotion bc connected to hippocampus and amygdala

• visual info is processed
• if damaged; think you are blind and can't see
• but if someone was to throw something to you, you could catch it because there is still visual processing happening outside the occipital lobe
• like spacial awareness in parietal

• structure resides deep inside the cerebrum
• -area that seperates temporal lobe from parietal lobe
• active in perception of bodil sensations, emotional states, empathy and addictive behavior

• communicates with limbic system and higher brain areas in decision making
• awareness of our body as our own

Broca

Wernicke

-Paul Broca; first neuropsychologist

-man with aphaisa could understand language but not speak it

-man's left hemisphere was damaged

-region of the left frontal lobe "broca's area"

-responsible for conducting language/speaking

Carl Wernicke; 20 yrs after Broca's discovery

-discovered an area in the left temporal lobe that is responsible for the comprehension of speach and language

-

people with wernicke's aphaisa can't understand language but can put together words/"sentences" but nothing makes sense

LEFT SIDE OF BRAIN:

• main language/boca and wernicke/analytical detail
• sequential, processed one after the other
• RIGHT side of the body

RIGHT SIDE OF BRAIN

• nonverbal-musical processing
• global-focus on bigger picture (apt comlex vs apt #)
• LEFT side of body

-very severe epileptic patients to help with siezuring

-when cut, the two hemispheres cannot communicate bc no information can pass through the corporus callosum

example: someone sees a marker to their left, they could not SAY what it was because the right side of their brain (Which receives the information that its a marker) cannot communicate with the left side of the brain which holds speaking power. But could pick up the brush with her LEFT hand

• EEG
• MRI
• FMRI
• PET Scan

-measure ELECTRIC activity on cortex/in brain

-looks at the function of the brain

-difficult to interpret

-only activity on cortex, none on lower sections

-hard to tell localization

-cheaper method

-magnets to sense change in MAGNETIC FIELD in brain

-looks at density tissues

-only telling about structure

(what parts are damaged)

-more expensive than EEG

-used to measure electricity and magnetic fields

-can measure  structure and function

-sees where neurons are firing and function

-easy to read (colors)

-deeper brain structures that can't be done with EEGs

-pituitary- connected to hypothalamus

-master gland

-secretes hormones that control all other glands in the body

-release hormones involved in stress response and emotions

-adrenaline, cortezal

-physiological impacts of stress