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| definitions of anthropology |
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Definition
1.the study of human beings-incomplete because it imcludes more than just people themselves
2. systematic study of human nature, human society, and human past
3. the study of the human species and its immediate ancestry |
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| includes many aspects of a multifaceted system |
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generalize about human nature, human society, and the human past regquires evidence from the widest possible range of human societues
Offers a unique cross-cultural perspective by constantly comparing the customs of one society with those of others
Not sufficient to observe only our own social group |
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1.Biological Anthropology
2.Archaeology
3.Linguistics
4.Ethnology (Cultural Anthropology) |
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Seeks to answer two sets of questions:
1.Human evolution (how we got where we are today)
2.Current human diversity
human genetics
human growth and development
human biological plasticity
demography |
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paleoanthropology
(bio anthro) |
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| studies the emergence of human and our later evolution |
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| studies the behavior and the evolution of non-human primates, our closest living relatives |
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Anthropology of the human past involving the analysis of material remains left behind by earlier human societies
Historical records |
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| Anthropological linguists |
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| often deal with languages that are not yet written |
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study of how languages change over time and how they may be related
ex:spanish and portuguese are very similar
Romance languages(span. Portuguese, italian, french) stem from Latin |
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study of how sounds and words are put together in speech
E.g., “r” and “l”—interchangeable in many languages (but not English)
“x”, “c” and “q” (clicks) in Xhosa |
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study of the social context of language**don’t nessicarilly use same context such as slang
E.g., greetings
The words we use vary greatly depending on the social context |
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| Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology |
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Definition
Seeks to understand how and why peoples today and in the recent past differ in their customary ways of thinking and acting
data collected through qualitative (non-numeric)- how people believe and feel
Data collected through participant-observation |
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| The researcher takes part in the activities being observed, interacts with members of the community |
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ethnographies—detailed descriptions of the people they have studied
Often book-length |
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Draws upon historical and contemporary sources of data to study how a particular culture has changed over time
Data often collected by outsiders, not the people themselves (e.g., writings by missionaries, soldiers, etc.)
E.g., the Inca (Peru) – much of what we know about them comes from the conquistadors |
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| Studies why some traits are found in some societies but not others |
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not a subfield
practical applications
half of all anthro. jobs
forensic evidence, curationg artifacts, community developement programs, health care programs |
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not subfeild
anthropologists—study the biological and sociocultural context of disease
Usually considered cultural anthropology; often have an applied perspective
People veiw disease differently |
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A theory is a testable and correctable explanation of observable phenomena that yields new information about nature
correctable and replaceable |
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1.Explains existing data
2. Makes predictions about new data
Theories are testable because they make predictions that can be tested and falsified
A theory cannot be “proven”
However, theories can be disproven!
This is perhaps more useful |
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| 4 types of evidence from the past |
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Definition
1. artifacts
2. ecofacts
3. fossils
4. features |
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anything made or modified by people
ex: pottery, arrowhead, widdled bones (bones that arent widdleed no) May be made of perishable material (e.g., wood, grass), or may be very similar to naturally occurring objects
Earliest artifacts may be difficult to identify
Why? dont know if made by humans |
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stone tools
non parishable |
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made from baked clay
non parishable |
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| hardened remains or impressions of animals or plants that lived in the past |
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| hardened remains or impressions of animals or plants that lived in the past |
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| hardened remains or impressions of animals or plants that lived in the past |
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human artifacts that cannot be removed from an archaeological site
ex: hearths, storage pits, buildings, footprints |
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known or suspected locations of human activity in the past that contain a record of that activity
doesnt show true age
invalid when been disturbed |
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| the study of the process of the site disturbance or distruction |
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oldest form of dating
stratigraphy (strta-grand canyon) |
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| Most methods based on the decay of a radioactive isotope |
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| the time it takes for half of the isotope in the sample to decay to its stable form |
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Allows you to date the age of organic material
Age limit: 50,000 years (new methods: up to 80,000 years |
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| Humans (the most perfect) were at the top, then apes, monkeys, other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, etc.—each in decreasing order of perfection |
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Linnaeus systematized the Great Chain of Being into a scientific framework, based on anatomy
Organisms identified as species; very similar ones shared the same genus; similar genera shared the same order, etc. |
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System of taxonomic classification
Homo sapiens sapiens
Genus species sub-species |
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Early advocate of evolution (late 18th century)
Believed characteristics acquired during an animal’s lifetime could be passed on to offspring
E.g., giraffes who stretch their necks over their lifetimes will have offspring with longer necks |
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You do not pass on the traits you acquire during your lifetime
E.g., body building, circumcision |
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| early views of evolution/ species change |
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Definition
static
no extinction
gods creation refelected gods perfection so extinction cant exist because it would mean gods creation was imperfect
earth was 6,000 years old so not enough time to allow species to change |
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| wrote influential book called principles of geology |
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| Galapagos islands, Darwins finches |
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Galapagos Islands: recent geological origin
Darwin observed a large number of finches, each occupying a highly specialized niche
The islands were too new for the finches to have been there forever, and the finches were too specialized for them to have come from someplace else
Darwin became convinced they were closely related, and had evolved into separate species fairly recently |
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| Charles Darwin, HMS Beagle |
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Definition
In 1831, Darwin obtained a position as ship’s naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle, which was about to embark on a worldwide scientific survey
species were not fixed—that they could change over time
Darwin conceived natural selection to explain the phenomena he observed during his voyage on the Beagle
Journey lasted 5 years |
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the idea that the earth is constantly being shaped and reshaped by gradual, natural forces that have operated over a vast stretch of time
These same forces can be observed today |
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quick series of catastrophes
(e.g., floods) account for observed geological formations |
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| Evolution by Natural Selection |
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| Proposed simultaneously by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace |
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| outlines the theory of natural selection |
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Darwin inferred evolution as a fact, from the fossil record and living species—gradual changes in animal life over long time periods
E.g., the fossil record; DNA (common ancestry) |
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| Theories are explanations proposed to explain observed facts and observations |
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| 3 steps in natural selection |
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Definition
Variation
Heritability
Differential Reproductive Success |
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within a species, there is variation for a specific trait
Some individuals are better adapted to the environment than others
E.g., speed (some cheetahs run faster than others)
Infant survival (some infants resist disease better than others) |
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offspring inherit traits from their parents
E.g., faster cheetahs have offspring that are faster |
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within a species, there is variation for a specific trait
Some individuals are better adapted to the environment than others
E.g., speed (some cheetahs run faster than others)
Infant survival (some infants resist disease better than others) |
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Definition
Traits spread through populations if there is selection pressure—e.g., they are favored by natural selection
The traits spread because they “solve problems” faced by the organism
E.g., obtaining food, reaching adulthood, etc.
Natural selection produces adaptations |
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traits that result in greater reproductive success within a particular environment
This is a relative term (e.g., relative to other variants of the trait)
A successful adaptation doesn’t have to the “best trait ever” – it just has to be more successful than the other options currently available |
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Once, all moths in Manchester were speckled gray
1850: First black moth observed
As pollution increased, gray moths were more visible on trees—easier for predators to spot
Selection pressure against gray moths
By 1950: 95% of moths in Manchester were black |
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Breeding (dogs, horses, pigeons) was a very popular pastime in Victorian England
People were familiar with taking two animals with a desired trait and breeding them to create a new line of animals possessing that trait
This was artificial selection, and was well-understood by Darwin’s audience |
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This is a classic example of natural selection in action
Variability: some bacteria more resistant to antibiotics than others
Heritability: antibiotic resistance can be passed on
Differential Reproductive Success: antibiotic-resistant microbes leave more offspring; soon the trait spreads through the population |
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darwins time, nothing was known of DNA
major obstacleto his theory |
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Natural Selection depends on traits being heritable—but in the 19th century, many people thought traits would “blend” over time
E.g., a tall father and a short mother produce a medium-height child
If traits blended and were diluted, they would not spread through the population—and thus natural selection would not work |
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His work with pea pods revealed “units of heredity” that are distinct and do not blend
Now called “genes” |
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| the appearance of an individual (the expression of the underlying genes, interacting with the environment) |
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| the genetic makeup of an individual (the genes that underlie a trait) |
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| not expressed in some generations, but would emerge unchanged in future generations |
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| Natural selection and Randomness |
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Definition
Natural selection has a random component—but it’s not a random process
Complex adaptation that cannot arise in a single step can be created through multiple small steps if selection is at work |
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They provide models of human evolution
We did not descend from any living primate—but they share many characteristics with our common ancestors
Especially important because behavior does not fossilize |
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The mother of naturalistic primate studies
Studied chimpanzees in Gombe Stream Reserve, Tanzania, beginning in 1960 |
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Term
| characteristics of primates |
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Definition
Kingdom = Animalia
Phylum = Chordata
Class = Mammalia
Order = Primata
Thus, primates share all characteristics of animals, chordates and mammals
E.g., they have a spine, fur, lungs, four limbs, are warm-blooded, nurse their young, etc.
Flexible hands and feet
Rotating forearm
Opposable thumbs
Fingernails (instead of claws)
Greater reliance on vision
Smelling ability reduced
Large eyes, stereoscopic vision, depth perception
Small litters (single births or twins)
Emphasis on offspring quality over quantity
Slow population growth
Large brains
Dentition
Teeth often less specialized than other mammals
Loss of teeth over time |
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Mostly tropical
Never in Australia or Antarctica
Formerly in North America
Mostly arboreal (tree-dwelling) |
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Prosimians
New World Monkeys
Old World Monkeys
Lesser Apes
Great Apes
Hominids |
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Retain more ancestral traits – resemble other mammals more than the other primates do
More reliance on smell
More pronounced snout
Wet noses
lemurs, tarsiers, slender loris, bushbaby |
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New and Old World monkeys, apes, and humans
Differ from prosimians:
Generally larger body size, larger brain
Reduced reliance on sense of smell
Increased reliance on vision (better color)
Increased parental care
Longer gestation and maturation
Increased social complexity |
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Central and South America
All arboreal
All diurnal (active during day) except owl monkeys
Includes several species with prehensile tails (spider monkeys and woolly monkeys only)
Golden lion tamarins, howler monkey |
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Central and South America
All arboreal
All diurnal (active during day) except owl monkeys
Includes several species with prehensile tails (spider monkeys and woolly monkeys only)
Golden lion tamarins, howler monkey, spider monkey, capuchin monkey |
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Differences from New World monkeys:
More diverse (behavior and morphology)
Wider range of habitats
Tropics, deserts, seasonally snow-covered areas
Mostly arboreal, but some are terrestrial
Red colobus monkey, Langurs, Proboscis monkey, mandrill, baboons |
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apes amd hominids
Differ from monkeys:
Larger body size
No tail
Shortened trunk
Larger brain
More complex behavior
Dentition (Y-5 molar cusp pattern) |
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Gibbons and Siamangs
Found in Southeast Asia
Arboreal
Excellent brachiators
Long arms, long curved fingers
Minimal sexual dimorphism (males/females roughly the same size)
Monogamous pair bonds
Male parental care |
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Orangutans
Gorillas
Chimpanzees
Larger than the hylobates
More complex socially |
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Pongo pygmaeus
Diet: mostly fruit and leaves |
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Gorilla gorilla
Diet: mostly leaves, stalks, pith
Harems: single male, multiple females
Two sub-species: lowland gorilla and mountain gorilla |
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Two distinct species: common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo (Pan paniscus)
Live in large multi-male/multi-female groups (up to 50 individuals)
Polygynandrous mating system: males mate with many females, females mate with many males
Diet: mostly fruit and leaves, but also hunt small mammals |
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| the group of hominoids that includes humans and their direct ancestors; distinguished by bipedal locomotion and large brains |
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Darwin thought humans evolved in Africa, since our closest living relatives (chimpanzees and gorillas) were there
Prevailing thought (until 1930s or so): humans evolved in Asia, or possibly Europe
Homo erectus first found in Java and China
African origin supported with fossil finds beginning in the 1920s |
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Large geological fissure running north/south along eastern side of Africa
Location of many great fossil finds
Volcanic deposits—useful for dating fossils |
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ardipithecus ramidus(4.4 mya)
austalopithecus anamensis (4.1- 3.9 mya)
australopithecus afarensis (3.9- 3.0 mya) |
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4.4 mya—earliest known hominid
Found in Aramis, Ethiopia by Tim White
Mixture of apelike dentition with hominid-like skeleton |
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| Robust australopithecines |
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Definition
Include A. aethiopicus, A. boisei, and A. robustus
Larger dentition, massive face and jaws, very muscular
Large sagittal crest (for attachment of chewing muscles) |
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| Gracile australopithecines |
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Definition
Include A. anamensis, A. afarensis, and A. africanus
Smaller dentition, lighter facial and dental musculature |
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| Australopithecus anamensis |
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Definition
4.1 – 3.9 mya
Found in Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya |
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| Australopithecus afarensis |
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3.9 – 3.0 mya, at Hadar (Ethiopia), Omo (Ethiopia) and Laetoli (Tanzania)
Many specimens, including Lucy, and footprints |
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Discovered in 1974 by Donald Johanson in Hadar, Ethiopia
40% complete skeleton
Only fragments of the skull—enough to see the brain was small
Pelvis/femur reveal she was bipedal |
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Mary Leakey discovered 3.6 myo fossilized footprints of two bipeds walking side by side
Contemporaneous with A. afarensis fossils at Laetoli (3.8 – 3.6 mya) |
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| Australopithecus africanus |
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Definition
3.5 to 2.3 mya
Southern and Eastern Africa
Major sites: Taung, Sterkfontein
First discovered by Raymond Dart, 1925
Taung child
Gracile australopithecine
Taller than A. afarensis, shorter face, less prognathic
Same size brain as A. afarensis, high sexual dimorphism
Beginnings of heavy chewing jaw and molar specialization
Once thought to be a human ancestor; now a side branch |
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| Discovered in Sterkfontein in 1947 by Robert Broom |
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| Australopithecus robustus |
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Definition
1.8 to 1.0 mya
South Africa (Swartkrans)
First discovered by Robert Broom in 1936
Contemporaneous with A. boisei and early Homo
Body and brain similar to A. africanus, but with more massive jaws, molars, skull, bones
Greater sexual dimorphism |
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| Australopithecus aethiopicus |
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Earliest robust australopithecine
2.7 – 2.3 mya
Ethiopia and Kenya
Intermediate between A. afarensis and later forms |
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2.2 to 1.3 mya, East Africa
Discovered in 1959 in Olduvai, Tanzania, by Mary Leakey (after 28 years of searching)
First hominid found in East Africa
Originally named Zinjanthropus boisei
Larger body size, larger brain, heavy musculature (sagittal crest, nuchal crest) and dentition (megadont chewing teeth) |
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| robust australopithecines into a new genus, |
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| Sahelanthropus tchadensis |
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Definition
Late Miocene fossil (approx. 7 mya)
Found in Chad, in 2002
Has many hominid features— but relationship to hominids and other apes unknown |
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2.3 – 1.6 mya
Larger brain than australopithecines
Literally means “handy man”
First found in Olduvai Gorge by Louis Leakey
Presumed toolmaker of the stone tools found at Olduvai |
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First stone tools
Core & flake technology
Emphasis on pebble tools
Some tools at Olduvai were made of stone that was not locally available |
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Probably both
Hunting gaining more importance over time |
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1.8 mya – 300 kya
Larger brains, bodies
Up to 6 feet tall
Major technological advances
Fire
Acheulean hand axe technology
First hominids to leave Africa
Descended from H. habilis—but the two species overlap as well |
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1.8 mya – 300 kya
Larger brains, bodies
Up to 6 feet tall
Major technological advances
Fire
Acheulean hand axe technology
First hominids to leave Africa
Descended from H. habilis—but the two species overlap as well |
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found Homo erectus remains (brain case and femur) in Java in 1891
“Java Man”
About 700,000 years old |
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: 1.6 myo nearly complete skeleton of a 11-12 year old boy
Found in 1984 by Richard Leakey’s team
5.1” tall—would have been about 6’1” as adult |
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| The African variant of Homo erectus is sometimes classified as a separate species: |
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In 2003, discovered a dwarf form of Homo erectus on the Indonesian island on Flores
Lived there from 95,000 to 13,000 years ago
Body and brain smaller than a chimp’s
Brain only 380cc
Nicknamed “the hobbit” |
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| 4 traits associated with h. erectus |
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Definition
Modern pelvic proportions
the first hominid to leave Africa
Acheulean tool kit: 1.6 mya - 300 kya
he first
hominid who definitely used
fire |
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