Smoke temperatures

1. Under high temperatures, oils start to 
2. Acrolein is highly
3. Cream butter has 175C smoke point whereas many plant oils like peanut 

1. smoke: this is due to acrolein
2.  toxic (even used as chemical weapon in World War I)
3. have 250C smoke point; flax oil is an exception (107C)

Cholesterol

1. Cholesterol is a main component of 
2. However, suspicions raised that high level of cholesterol corresponds with
3. Recent experiments suggest that cholesterol level has only
4. Plant oils do not contain

1. membranes and predecessor of steroid hormones
2.  atherosclerosis (Ancel Keys’ conception of “Mediterranean diet”) 
3.  weak relation with vessel diseases
4.  cholesterol

Trans fats

1. Trans fats are products of 
2. Again, suspicion is that trans fats are related with 
3. Now most of hydrogenated oils (margarines) are 

1. hydrogenation of plant oils, they also may appear in deep fat frying
2. heart diseases
3. almost free of trans fats

Omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids

1. Essential fatty acids that may only be 
2. They probably related with lowering of cholesterol level, with curing
3. Canola, flax and soybean oils contain significant amounts of 

1. synthesized in plants
2.  Type 2 diabetes, and with general lowering of cardiovascular mortality
3. omega-3-unsaturated fatty acids (and also sea fishes)

1. Sunflower,
2. Belongs to 
3. Big genus distributed in 
4. Only one species,

1.  Helianthus annuus
2. aster family, Asteraceae
3. North and South (but not Central) Americas
4. Helianthus annuus is cultivated

Sunflower biology

1. Annual plant 
2. Young plants are 
3. Up to 65% of 
4. Used also as forage plant,
5. Coordinates of flowers in the head are explained with Vogel’s

model:

r =

p

n;  = n  137:5;

where where  is angle, r is the distance from the center, n is the

index number of the floret, and c is a constant.

1. (exception among sunflowers!)
2. Highly heliotropic
3. oils in seeds
4.  especially in northern regions

5. where where  is angle, r is the distance from the center, n is the

   index number of the floret, and c is a constant.

Sunflower agriculture

1. Requires light and aerated, rich soils; root system requires phosphorus
2. Vegetation period 
3. pollinated plant
4. Oil is pressed similarly to 
5. There are also

1. allows to use water from deep layers of soil; 
2. 70–140 days
3. Wind- and insect-
4. most oil plants
5.  nut cultivars

Sunflower history

1. Domesticated most probably in North America, widely used by native tribes in 
2. Went to Europe in 1510, cultivated as 
3. In Russia, folk selection resulted in fasciated cultivars which have 
4. In 1859, cultivation started again, 
5. Ukraine, Germany and United States are now
6. Symbol of 

1. New Mexico and other southern states
2. ornamental and forage plant and then abandoned
3. several times more seeds per head
4. now as an oil plant (Bokarev discovered the high oil content)
5.  main producers
6. Ukraine, state flower of Kansas

1. Peanut, 
2. Belongs to 
3. Geocarpic plants: fruits are 
4. One of the most 

1. Arachis hypogaea
2. legume family, Leguminosae
3. burying into the ground
4. protein-rich oil plants (53% oils, 25% proteins)

Peanut biology

1. Small, self-pollinated plant with
2. Burying structure is a 
3. Legumes are 
4. 1–2% of population have

1.  flowers positioned nearby soil surface
2. gynophore, part of flower receptacle
3. undehiscent, contain 2–3 seeds
4.  peanut allergy (consequence of high protein content)

Peanut agriculture

1. Vegetation is
2. Requires warm temperatures, average 
3. As a legume, does not need 
4. Susceptible to fungus contamination in storage: 

1.  3–5 months
2. humidity (500–1,000 mm) and light, sandy soils
3. many fertilizers
4. some fungi produce toxic aflatoxin

Peanut history

1. Cultivated species is a 
2. In valleys of Peru, cultivated from 
3. In XVII century, went independently to 
4. Biggest producers now are
5. Main crop in several 
6. Hundreds of cultivars, in U.S. there are 

1. tetraploid originated from hybridization of two South American wild species
2. 5,600 BC
3. Africa and Asia
4.  China, India and U.S.
5. West African countries, e.g., Ghana.
6. mostly “Runner” and “Virginia” groups

1. “Canola”, 
2. “Canola” stands for “canadian oil”, 
3. One of the most hardy oil plants
4. New culture, only in 

1. rapeseed, Brassica napus
2.  name of the group of cultivars of rapeseed, Brassica napus from
3. 1970s started to be used widely

Canola biology

1. Medium-sized (up to 1.5 m tall) herbaceous
2. Seeds contain high amounts of 
3. Cross-pollinated, produces significant amounts of 
4. Non-canola cultivars contain

1.  annual, cultivated as winter or as spring crop
2. unsaturated oils including omega-3 oils
3. nectar
4.  toxic erucic acid and glucosinolates

Canola agriculture

1. Relatively easy culture, requires 
2. Needs high amounts of
3. Harvesting should be fast because 

1. water and cool temperatures, long-day plant
2.  fertilizers
3. siliques are dehiscing fast

Canola history

1. Domesticated in 
2. Cultivated for a long time but mostly as 
3. In 1974, zero-rapeseed was selected which contained less than 
4. Canola cultivars are susceptible for 
5. Canola also susceptible to 
6. Biggest producers now are 

1. Europe
2. technical oil plant
3. 2% of erucic acid; in 1982, 00-rapeseed which contains almost 0% of erucic acid: canola
4. fungal diseases (erucic acid was a defense agent)
5. cross-pollination with technical rapeseed
6. China, Canada and India

1. All oil plants contain 
2. The most oil characteristics are smoke temperature, amount of 

1. oil (non-saturated triglycerids) in seeds
2. cholesterol, amount of trans fats and omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids

1. Olive, 
2. One of the oldest oil plants, also used as
3. Belongs to olive family, 
4. Relatively hardy plant despite of 

1. Olea europaea
2. vegetable
3. Oleaceae
4. evergreen life form

Olive biology

1. Evergreen,
2. Starts to produce fruits from
3. Cross-pollinated with
4. Oil does not contain 

1.  long-lived (up to 2,000 years), small tree
2.  3–4 year (when grafted)
3.  wind
4. omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids

Olive agriculture

1. Requires dry air and lots of sun, does not
2. One tree may produce 
3. Harvested in winter,
4. Oil is pressed, outer parts are 

1.  particular to soils (but grows better on limestone soils)
2. 20 kg of fruits per year for 200 years
3.  half-manually, by shaking trees
4. fermented to remove bitter oleuropein

Olive history

1. Large historical and mythological background: from 
2. Cultivation started 
3. More than 500 cultivars; top producers are
4. Olive became invasive in 

1. Old Testament and Greek mythology to Quran
2. > 6,000 BC in Mediterranean
3.  Spain, Italy and Greece
4. Australia

1. Sesame, 
2. Belongs to the tropical genus
3. The oldest cultivated 

1. Sesamum indicum
2.  Sesamum (20 species) from sesame family, Pedaliaceae
3. oil plant

Sesame features

1. Tropical herbaceous annual plant,
2. Seeds contain 50-65% of oil; oil contains 
3. Can grow in 
4. Used entirely (green mass as a forage,

1.  vegetation 3–4 month, yield is 1–2 tons/hectare
2. phytosterols, vitamin E and significant amounts of microelements, especially iron and magnesium
3. dry climatic zones
4.  pressed cakes in bakery etc.)

Sesame history

1. Cultivation started in India prehistorically, went to 
2. Now cultivated mostly in 
3. Biggest producers are still
4. Famous also after Ali-Baba story from

1. ancient Egypt and then to Europe
2. tropics around the world
3.  India and China
4.  “One thousand and one nights”

1. Names of flower female part (gynoeceum):
2. Evergreen plans do not survive in winters because (a)  (b)

1.  pistil, ovary, style, stigma, ovule (future seed), pistil wall (future pericarp)
2. a)water in cytoplasm form big crystals (b) because leaves are still transpirate water whereas roots cannot take it from frozen soil

Testosterone

1. In prenatal development, induces
2. Generally, promotes growth of 
3. Growth of muscle system stimulates 
4. Has androgenic effects: secondary 
5. Regulates fight-or-flight response, 
6. Present in both males and females in

1. gender identity
2. muscle system through facilitation the synthesis of proteins
3. growth of bones
4. sex characteristics, sperm development
5. aggressive behavior and overall level of muscle energy
6.  10:1 proportion

Estrogens

1. Group of hormones, most important are 
2. Regulate female 
3. Activate metabolism, reduce muscle mass, increase 
4. Rapid changes of estrogen levels reflects on 
5. Promote development of some
6. Present in both 

1. estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2)
2. menstrual cycle
3. the level of fat storage, fasten cholesterol metabolism, promote female secondary sexual characteristics
4. mental health
5.  breast cancers
6. males and females

Phytoestrogens

1. Plant analogs of 
2. Have both 
3. Soybeans contain significant amounts of 

1. steroids, “diet estrogens”
2. estrogen and anti-estrogen effects
3. phytoestrogens

1. Red clover, 
2. First spotted because of effect on 
3. Plant belongs to 
4. Red, 2–3 cm diameter
5. European plant, used as a

1. Trifolium pratense
2. grazing sheep fertility
3. legume family, Leguminosae
4.  flower heads
5.  forage and naturalized in North America

Red clover clinical effects

1.  are two main components
2. Traditionally used for treating 
3. Now often used for a natural

1. Genistein and coumestrol
2. skin diseases
3.  hormone therapy, decreases risks of some cancers

1. Black conosh,
2. Belongs to 
3. The other name is 
4. Traditionally, also used for curing 

1.  Cicimifuga racemosa
2. butterwort family, Ranunculaceae
3. “squawroot” because of traditional use for female therapy
4. snake bites (“black snakeroot”)

Black conosh clinical effects

1. Glycosides cicimifugosides (e.g., actein) are 
2. Improve 
3. Lowering 

1. main active components
2. menopausal symptoms, also affects menstrual cycle
3. blood pressure

1. Saw palmetto, 
2. Belongs to
3. Important component of
4. Fruits are small 

1. Serenoa serrulata
2.  palm family, Palmae
3.  Florida forests
4. black berries

Clinical effects of saw palmetto

1. Contains multiple 
2. Used mostly for treating

1. phytosterols (e.g., -sitosterol) with estrogen effects
2.  prostate diseases in males

1. African Yohimbe, 
2. Belongs to 
3. Tall West
4. Bark is most rich of 

1. Pausinystalia yohimbe
2. Rubiaceae family (which is rich of medicinal plants)
3.  African tree
4. pharmaceutical components

Yohimbe pharmacological effects

1. Contains multiple 
2. Alkaloid is

1. alkaloids, including yohimbine
2.  -adrenergic blocker, widely used as sexual stimulant

1. Mediterranean garden rocket, 
2. Herbaceous plant from 
3. Used as leaf vegetable and as a 
4. Source of 

1. Eruca sativa
2. cabbage family, Cruciferae
3. sexual stimulant from Roman times
4. digestive alcohol, rucolino

1. Indian gokharu,
2. Eurasian herbaceous creeping plant from 
3. Fruits have extremely large 
4. Important traditional part of Indian 
5. Main component is

1.  Tribulus terrestris
2. Zygophyllaceae family, naturalized in U.S.
3. spines dangerous even to bicycles
4. Ayurveda and Unani medicinal traditions
5.  steroidal protodioscin, increases the level of testosterone

1. West Asian tonghat, 
2. Small Indonesian tree from
3. Main active components are extremely bitter 
4. It is shown that root extract increase 
5. Now widely used as 

1. Auricoma longifolia
2.  Simaroubaceae family
3. (50 times more than quinine) quassinoids (e.g., eurycomalactone) from tree toots
4. sperm count, testosterone level, and even anti-cancer
5. anabolic for bodybuilders

1. Central American damiana, 
2. Shrub from 
3. Native Americans prepared
4. It is shown that constituents may take part in 

1. Turnera diffusa
2. Turneraceae family, native to southern U.S. and Mexico
3.  “damiana tea” as sexual stimulator
4. estrogen metabolism

1. Southern American walking palm,
2. Small palm from 
3. Widely known as “walking plant” because it constantly develops new 
4. Inner parts of stilt roots are used as

1.  Socratea exorrhiza
2. Amazonian forests
3. stilt roots whereas older are decaying
4.  aphrodisiac

There are two main ways for plants to influence human

reproductive system:

 produce hormone analogs, or act directly to

nervous centers

Safflower, Carthamnus tinctorius

Oil palm, Elaeis guineensis

New oil cultures

Lesser oil plants

Technical oil plants

1. Safflower, 
2. Belongs to Mediterranean
3. Highly
4. Multiple uses: as oil plant, as 

1. Carthamnus tinctorius
2.  Carhtamnus (distaff thistles) genus and atser family, Compositae
3.  ornamental cultivated plant
4. medicinal plant and as saffron substitute (red dye)

Safflower features

1. Achenes contain 
2. Oil contains mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and therefore may be used for
3. Flowers contain 
4. Rich of 

1. 15–35% of oil
2.  painting (fast-dried oil)
3. carthamin which produces a red-brown color, often used in food production
4. tokoferols (vitamin E)

Safflower history

1. One of the most ancient cultivated plants, used in
2. Went to Japan and used there as a plant which dye had ceremonial meaning

1.  Old Egypt
2. dye had ceremonial meanings

1. Oil palm,
2. Used in Africa from prehistorical times, but the mass 
3. Belongs to
4. Palm oils are semi-solid at the 

1.  Elaeis guineensis
2. cultivation started only in the beginning of XX century
3.  palm family, Palmae
4. room temperature: plant fats

Oil palm features and history

1. Oil is reach of saturated fatty acids, especially 
2. Yield is high (up to 100 kg of oil from one tree per year), and therefore palm oil is very 
3. Biggest producers are 
4. Also famous a s the source of

1. palmitic (C16) acid, also rich of carotenes and often has a reddish color
2. common oils in tropics
3. Malaysia ands Indonesia
4.  Greek fire and napalm (mixture of palmitic acids, several other organic compounds and aluminum)

1. Sacha inchi, 
2. South American, Amazonian tree from 
3. Capsules contain several large seeds,
4. Sacha inchi oil contains highest amounts of 
5. Cultivation started in 

1. Plunkettia volubilis—perspective oil plant
2. spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
3.  rich of oil (60%)
4. omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids (93%!) and vitamin E (by the way, emu oil is the one of the few animal oils which also contains high high amounts of omega, up to 20%)
5. 2000s, mostly in Peru

1.  Cocos nucifera
2. technical and nut plant
3. rich of saturated fatty acids, especially lauric acid (48%)
4. coconut milk (wet process), or copra (dry process)
5.  (lubricant, fuel, cosmetics)

1. Soybeans,
2. Apart from protein food, soybeans produce one of 
3. Soybean oil is rich of
4. Soybean oil may also be used for 

1.  Glycine max
2. most widely used cooking oil, with high smoke point (232C)
3.  poly-unsaturated fatty acids (especially 2-unsaturated linoleic, 51%)
4.  painting (because it is drying slowly), as insect repellent, as fuel, and as fixative to essential oils

1. Flax, 
2. Obtained from flax (Linum usitatissimum from Linaceae family) which is also used as
3. Bright yellow, very fast drying oil because it is rich of triply 
4. Normally, used as a technical substance for painting, for finishing wood, for linoleum (one of the first half-synthetic floor covering) and also as rich and 

1. Linum usitatissimum
2.  technical plant and will be covered in more details later
3. unsaturated fatty acid, -linolenic acid (up to 55%), smoke point is low (107C)
4. useful food supplement (-linolenic acid = !-unsaturated acid, EFA)

1. Cottonseed, 
2. Extracted from seeds of 
3. Oil contains up to 52% stearic (monounsaturated) fatty acid, very stable (does not dry) and with
4. Used in many foods, especially for 
5. High of 
6. Contain amounts of gossypol—biologically active phenolic compound which may be used in

1. Gossypium spp.
2. cotton (several species of Gossypium from Malvaceae family)
3.  high smoke point (232C) [Rice oil has the highest smoke point, 254C]
4. salad dressings and chips, for deep frying
5. tokoferols (vitamin E)
6.  medicine (e.g., as contraceptive, for curing viral infections etc.) but should be removed from food oil

1. Grapeseed, 
2. By-product of winemaking, extracted
3. Similarly to soybean oil, rich of
4. Used similarly to 
5. Has high medicinal value: contains 

1. Vitis vinifera
2.  from grape (Vitis vinifera from Vitaceae family)
3. 2-unsaturated linoleic acid (72%)
4. cottonseed oil: salad dressings and deep frying
5. phytoalexin (plant non-specific immune chemical) resveratrol (also component of red wine) which is anti-cancer and anti-hypertensive drug

1. Cocoa butter, 
2. Cocoa butter from Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae family) is plant fat,
3. Has 37C melting temperature and therefore used a lot as a 
4. Normally, does not contain 

1. from Theobroma cacao
2.  rich on non-saturated fatty acids (stearic and palmitic together 60%)
3. subsidiary oil in medicine (e.g., in suppositories) and in cosmetics; also used for making white chocolate
4. theobromine and caffeine (components of dark chocolate)

Essential oils

1. Mixture of 
2. Used for 
3. The most famous are probably 

1. hydrophobic components bearing plant odors
2. aromatherapy and in cosmetics
3. rose oil and eucalyptus oil

1. Ylang-ylang, 
2. Tree from custard 
3. Fast-growing tree from 
4. Has diverse medical applications, used for 
5. Comoros is the biggest exporter of 

1. Cananga odorata
2. apple family (Annonaceae) which is cultivated for perfume oil
3. Indonesia
4. cosmetics and in aromatherapy 
5. ylang-ylang (29% of its annual export)

1. Camphor tree, 
2. East Asian tree from 
3. Contain multiple aromatic substances, e.g.,
4. Camphor use has the old history, it still has a 
5. It is a Totoro tree from H. Miyazaki’s 

1. Cinnamomum camphora
2. laurel family, Lauraceae
3.  camphor—unusual hydrophobic molecule
4. high ceremonial lue in Hinduism, used in sweets, for aromatherapy and in fireworks (highly flammable)
5. “My neighbor Totoro” anime film

1. Oil palm and cocoa tree produce high amounts of 
2. The most promising contemporary oil cultures are 

1. plant “fats”
2. canola and sacha inchi

1. Tung, 
2. Small East Asian deciduous tree from
3. Highly poisonous seeds contain one of the best drying 
4. Used for finishing wood

1. Vernicia (Aleurites) fordii
2.  spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
3. oils, rich (82%) of 3-unsaturated -eleostearic fatty acid
4.  (especially for musical instruments) and other staining processes

1. Castor oil plant, 
2. African and Indian shrub from 
3. Cultivated as 
4. Seeds are poisonous, but contain (95%) unique 
5. Widely used in traditional medicine as laxative, now used in many modern 
6. In fascist Italy, was widely used for intimidation of 

1. Ricinus communis
2. spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
3. annual in temperate regions
4. castor oil containing hydroxylated ricinoleic oil (unsaturated oil with –OH group)
5. drugs as a component, and also as technical oil for lubrication, making plastics etc.
6. Mussolini opponents (oil is not poisonous but in large quantity may be harmful)

1. Jojoba, 
2. Shrub of its own family 
3. Name is a result of botanical mistake: 
4. Seeds contain unique liquid wax (10C is a melting point): combination of 
5. Jojoba “oil” is odorless, colorless and 
6. Widely cultivated in

1. Simmondsia sinensis
2. (Simmondsiaceae) native to southern North America
3. botanist J. Link misread label “Calif” as “China”
4. long-chained fatty acids and fatty alcohols
5. oxidatively stable, used a a substitute for sperm whale oil: cosmetics, as stable lubricant (it is not digested for most organisms); and now also as biofuel
6.  Arizona, California and Mexico

Fruits—and vegetables

1. The main “common sense” difference is the low amounts of 
2. However, there are multiple
3. In addition, pumpkins and relatives (melon, watermelon, squashes) normally treated as
4. Morphologically, fruits are fruits 

1. sugars in vegetables, plus tree origin of fruits
2.  exceptions: beet, avocado, plantains etc.
3.  separate group
4. (and sometimes seeds like litchi or pomegranate, or riped inflorescences like pineapple or fig), and vegetables are everything else

Main components of fruits

Water

Dietary fiber

Sugars

Organic acids

Vitamins

Dietary fiber

Polysaccharides

Lignin

Other constituents of plant cell walls (glycoproteides etc.)

Improve intestinal transit, lowering the risk of colorectal cancer

Fruit sugars

1. Mostly
2. Sweeter 1.7 times more than sucrose, but

1.  fructose and its derivatives (kestoses)
2.  only at room temperature

Organic acids

Malic (Pyrus malus, apple and other Rosaceae fruits)

Citric (Citrus fruits etc.)

Tartaric (e.g., in wine)

Are good antioxidants

Fruit vitamins

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

Pro-vitamin A (-carotene)

Other carotenes (lycopene etc.)

Specific components which are restricted to few

species

Lipids

Starch

Gums, mucilages, pectins

Astringent chemicals (e.g., tannic acid)

Aroma compounds

Other secondary* metabolites (latex, alkaloids, glycosides)

Rosaceae in general

1. Medium-sized family (3,000 species) of small trees, shrubs and herbs from 
2. Flower contains numerous
3. Fruit is mostly

1. subtropical and temperate regions
2.  stamens (secondary multiplied), free pistils and hypanthium
3.  fleshy

Rosaceae groups

1. —herbs or shrubs, leaves often compound, receptacle large, fruit aggregate
2. —shrubs or trees, leaves simple, receptacle small, fruit often monomerous
3. —trees, leaves simple, receptacle and pistils fused

1. Rosoideae
2. Spiraeoideae
3. Maloideae

1. Rosaceae with multiple 
2. Most 
3. Rosa is 
4. Rubus and Fragaria are also widely

1. (aggregate) fruits
2. primitive group
3. ornamental and medicine plant
4.  cultivated

1.  herbs
2. raspberry (Rubus idaea) and blackberry, Rubus caesius forms and hybrids

Rubus features

1. Two aboveground stem types: 
2. Tangled genetic systems: apomixis,
3. Fruits contain (among other)

1. primocane and floricane, plus underground rhizomes
2.  polyploidy and even permanent pentaploidy (2n = 35)
3.  salycilic acid and different antioxidants

1. Fragaria ananassa, 
2. Octoploid (2n = 56) hybrid species of two other octoploid strawberries,
3. Garden hybrid, first occurrences are from
4. Herb with runner stems and 

1. strawberry
2.  Fragaria virginiana from North America and F. chiloensis from Chile.
3.  1740
4. accessory multiple nut fruit (the edible part is a receptacle)

Strawberry features

1. Susceptible to multiple diseases, often cultivated in 
2. Cultivated as
3. Long-day cultivars flower early in

1. semi-artificial conditions as plasticulture
2.  annual or perennial
3.  May and capable to produce fruits in June

1.  temperate fruit families
2. long selection involved multiple hybridization

1. Rosaceae fruits
2.  Other temperate and subtropical fruits

1. Rosaceae with pome fruits (end)

2. Citrus and related genera

   Important tropical fruits

1. Sorbus spp., 
2. Large (up to 200 species) genus occurred in 
3. Most species have 
4. European rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), and
5. Fruits are mostly used for 

1. mountain ash
2. North America and Eurasia
3. edible fruits
4.  common whitebeam (Sorbus aria) are main cultivated species (also as ornamentals)
5. wines, jams and jellies; bitter taste is normally gone after first frosts

1. Crataegus spp.,
2. More than 200 species of shrubs ans small trees from 
3. Many species are cultivated for their
4. Used in multiple traditional medicine practices, one proven use in 

1.  hawthorn 
2. Eurasia and North America
3.  fruits and also as ornamentals, for aroma compounds and/or as tea surrogate
4. treating chronic heart diseases

Citrus and related genera

1. Belong to Rutaceae, 
2. East Asian and/or
3. Have specific hesperidium fruit with

1. ruta family, often treated as separate subfamily, Aurantioideae
2.  Indonesian origin
3.  flavedo exocarp, albedo mesocarp and membrane endocarp covered with juicy hairs

1. Trifoliate,
2. Spiny, hardy citrus, with compound leaves, growing 
3. Used as a rootstock for
4. Fruits are bitter but contain 

1.  Poncirus
2. even in warm temperate regions
3.  grafting other species
4. vitamins and microelements

1. Orange, 
2. Covered in 
3. To add: mostly
4. Also used as a

1. Citrus sinensis
2. presentation
3.  subtropical (not tropical) culture
4.  rootstock for other species (e.g., grapefruit)