1. Rye
2. Belongs to the same tribe with
3. Much “younger”
4. Cultivated mostly in temperate regions of

1. Secale 
2. wheat, Triticeae 
3. cultivated plants
4. Eurasia (Russia, Germany, Sweden) and Canada

1. sandy soils
2. frost
3. cycle
4. adapted for long days,
5.  1 ton/hectare
6. cultivars
7. Cross
8. proteins, wheat bread
9. sometimes up to 70%)
10. as a source of ethanol, as a source of straw

rye taxonomy

1. Several species, only one is
2. Has two subspecies: one is a cultivated rye
3. Chromosome number is diploid

1. cultivated: Secale cereale
2. Secale cereale subsp. cereale, second is a weed (occuting mostly in wheat crops): Secale cereale subsp. segetale
3. (2n = 14), similar to primitive diploid wheats

Rye origin and history

1. Weed rye originated from wild species and become
2. Cultivated rye is a
3. One theory (N. Vavilov) said that rye outperformed wheat on the northern slopes of Caucasus mountains where spring
4. Than selection started for bigger grains
5. First remains of rye dated
6. Since rye has open flowers, it sensitive to ergot (Claviceps purpurea fungus) containing

1. annual (other ryes are perennial) in order to correspond with wheat life cycle
2. domesticated weed rye 
3. spring may come two months later than on southern slopes; this competition sometimes resulted in pure rye crops
4. since rye is cross-pollinated, selection went faster
5. 300–400 AD (Black Sea coast
6. hallucinogenic lysergine acid which was the cause of egotism disease in medieval centuries

1. Barley
2. Belongs to
3. Plant of multiple use:
4. Old West Asian culture,

1. Hordeum
2. same tribe Triticeae
3. as bread (rarely), as a cereal, for making beer, as a feeding plant
4. now cultivated mostly in temperate regions of North Hemisphere

Barley features

1. Grains are not fully appropriate for bread, they 
2. Hardy plant, survives easily in winter (there are many winter cultivars), has extremely

1. have too low amount of proteins ( 7%), resulted bread is crumbling too much 
2. fast life cycle and therefore cultivated on high altitudes in mountain areas (as Tibet)

Barley taxonomy

1. Almost 40 species
2. Hordeum distichon, two-rowed barley
3. Hordeum vulgare, six-rowed barley,

1. only two are widely cultivated
2. is cultivated mostly for beer production; spike has two rows of spikelets 
3. cultivated for multiple purposes; six rows of spikelets

1. Hordeum distichon,
2. Old culture (7,000 BC) from
3. Annual, with
4. Only spring
5. Now cultivated mostly in

1. two-rowed barley
2. West Asia and Egypt, originated from wild Hordeum spontaneum
3. flat spikes
4. forms
5. West and Middle Asia and Europe

1. Hordeum vulgare
2. Newer culture, 4–5,000 BC, originated from
3. China and Japan are still centers of
4. Goes very high on mountains
5. Unfortunately, sensitive to

1. six-rowed barley
2. East Asia 
3. centers of diversity (and probably, centers of origin)
4. on mountains, up to 6,000 m above sea level
5. drowning and to fungal diseases, especially to powdery mildew (Erysiphe spp.)

Role in brewing

1. For brewing, barley grains are malted:
2. Consequently, enzymes started to modify starch into
3. There saccharides are using for making wort (mixture of malted barley with water); wort is then

1. germinated by soaking in water and then sharply drying by hot air 
2. mono- and disaccharides, such as fructose, glucose, sucrose and maltose
3. fermented with brewer yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungus)

1. Oat
2. Belongs to different tribe
3. Morphology is also different: oats have branched
4. Several species in cultivation, as a feeding plants

1. (Avena)
2. Aveneae
3. inflorescence, panicle
4. (especially for horses) and as cereals

Oat features

1. Hardy culture, cultivated mostly in
2. Grains contain high amounts of
3. Mostly spring forms (winter cultivars also exist); life cycle longer than in
4. Not sensitive to

Oat taxonomy

1. Several dozens species
2. Avena byzantina, red oat, is more
3. Avena sativa, common oat, main cultivated oat, has

1. only two are widely cultivated
2. hardy and also better adapted to dry climates, has long grains
3. has shorter grains

Origin of oats

1. Red oat is a domesticated form of wild oat,
2. Cultivation started with invention of 
3. Common oat was the weed of emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum),and became 

1.  Avena sterilis.
2. big cavalry armies ( 400 BC)of Alexander the Great
3. pure culture when crops went northward (similar to rye) 

Rice (Oryza sativa)

1. Belong to the tribe 
2. Has panicle as an 
3. More than half of human population use rice 
4. Cultivated mostly in 

1. Oryzeae

2. inflorescence, flowers with 6 stamens(uncommon in grasses)

   3. rice as a main foodsource

   4.tropics and subtropics, below 42 latitudes

    

    

Rice features

1. High calories (360 cal / 100 g), up to 10% of proteins, including 
2. White (polished) rice does not contain embryo and therefore deficient of many vitamins; beriberi disease is a deficiency of 
3. Rice is not used for bread, if cooked it become
4. Yield is higher than wheat, 
5. Rice is a coastal plant, requiring water, especially when young; 
6. Ancestrally, rice requires monsoon climate: 

1. lysine amino acid (!)
2. vitamin B1 (tiamine) originated in richer families of Indonesia (because they were wealthy enough to buy a “better” rice)
3. extremely brittle
4. 6 ton/hectare
5. seedlings are often manually planted in the soil covered with water
6. first season is wet (rice germinates), second is dry (rice matures)

Rice taxonomy

1. 28 species, only one is widely cultivated:
2. Several main varieties, including Japanese (short-grain) and Indian (long-grain) rice. Japanese variety has 

1. Oryza sativa, common rice
2. sticking (high proteins) and non-sticking forms.

Rice origin and history

1. First remains (Thailand) are 7,000 BC; mass cultivation started in 
2. Most probably, perennial Oryza perennis is a wild 
3. Came to Europe with 
4. From 1865, is cultivated in 
5. After the “Green Revolution” in 1960s, genetically modified rice cultivars

1. East Asia 4–5,000 BC
2. relative of cultivated rice
3. Arabs in first millennium
4. U.S. (first plantations in North Carolina)
5.  allow to finish hunger in India and China

Rice agriculture

1. Seeds are germinated 
2. After several weeks, seedling are transplanted 
3. Water should be removed after 
4. There are also “mountain” rice which does not

1. in nurseries
2. (often manually) to flooded fields
3. 1–2 month from transplanting
4. require flooding (but yield is less)

Lesser C3 grasses

C4 grasses

1. Indian rice, Zizania
2. Digitaria exilis, fonio
3. Eragrostis tef, tef

Indian rice, Zizania

1. Small (3 species) genus of
2. Big (up to 1.5 m), partly submerged grasses with  
3. Inflorescences are 
4. Has a long 

, Zizania

1. water grasses distributed in East Asia and North America
2. unisexual flowers
3. panicles
4. grains

1. Zizania aquatica, or 
2. Only one species was used by
3. Odjibwe name
4. Half-cultivated 
5. Stems tied (precaution against birds),

1. or manoomin
2. Native Americans
3.  “manoomin”, Dakota name “psi”
4.  (supported but not planted)
5.  then harvested from canoe

1. Digitaria exilis
2. Main crop of 
3. The only cultivated species of big ( 300 species) genus 
4. Low, heavily
5. Grains are extremely small (2–3 mm); however, the yield 

1.  fonio
2.  West Africa
3. Digitaria
4. branched grasses
5. is comparable with primitive wheats

Fonio agriculture

1. Well adapted to short days, high 
2. Need only surface development of
3. Manual

1. temperatures and low precipitation
2. soil, planted by scattering
3.  harvesting and threshing

Eragrostis tef, tef

1. One of the main cultures of 
2. Used for 
3. Small, branching plants with small
4. Grains are rich of
5. Well adapted to 

1. East Africa
2. making bread
3. spikelets and grains
4. iron (used also for medical purposed, for treating anemia)
5. high altitudes

Zea mays, 

1. The most important 
2. Mostly tropical, subtropical and 
3. U.S. is a main corn producer 
4. Has a high yield:
5. Grains are rich of 
6. Using for bread-like products, for making starch, sugar, as a forage plant, for making 

 corn

1. world grain (after wheat and rice)
2. warm temperate culture
3. (almost 50% of world production)
4. up to 8 tons/hectare
5.  proteins (up to 20%) and oil (4–8%)
6. different secondary production (coal, ethanol, paper)

Zea mays morphology and taxonomy

1. Unique grass, the sole member of genus 
2. High (up to 6 m) annual with relatively 
3. Has a highly modified ___: terminal male are panicles whereas axillare female inflorescences have 
4. Female flowers have extremely 
5. -pollinated
6. Caryopsis big, round-shaped, with

1. Zea
2. small root system
3. inflorescences, inflated axis and densely packed flowers
4. long styles (sometimes  1 m)
5. Cross
6.  soft or glossy endosperm

Zea mays diversity

Four most common varietes:

1. : small grains and corns, endosperm has two layers and used for popcorn
2. : grains a rich of starch
3. : 70% of cultivated corn
4. : rich of sugars, used for canned corn

1. var. microsperma
2. var. amylacea:
3. var. dentiformis
4. var. saccharata

Zea mays agriculture

1. Optimal temperatures are 
2. Needs a constant 
3. Most effective with 
4. Likes short days, vegetation period up to 

1. 25–30 C
2. water supply and rich (especially with nitrogen and phosphorous) soil
3.  crop rotation
4.  200 days

Zea mays origin

1. No close 
2. Two related genera are 
3. Most probably, wild ancestor became 

1. relatives exist (!)
2. Teosinte (teosinte) and Tripsacum (gama grass) which could cross with corn
3. extinct  5,000 years ago

Zea mays history

1. First remains from 
2. Most probably domestication started in 
3. All varietes already exist in pre-Colombian era, corn became 
4. In 1492, Columbus wrote first notes about 
5. From XVI century, cultivation started in 

1. Mexico dated 3,400 years BC
2. Mexico and Central America independently
3. widely cultivated from Canada to southern South America
4. corn cultivation
5. Africa, than in Europe and finally in Asia

Sorghum

1. More than 30 species, many of them are 
2. Ancient culture (3,000 BC), started in 
3. Now cultivated mostly in 
4. Yield is around 

Sorghum

1.  cultivated
2. Africa
3. Asia and Africa, preferably in most dry and hot places
4. 3 tons/hectare

Sorghum morphology and agriculture

1. Tall 
2. Inflorescences are 
3. Small 
4. Requires
5. Drought-tolerant, allows 
6. Long growth period: 
7. Came to Asia  2,000 years ago, but cultivated in 

1. (up to 1.5 m) grasses
2. dense panicles
3. grains
4. high temperatures and short days
5. most kinds of soils
6. 200 or more days
7. Europe and U.S. only for last 100 years

Sorghum diversity

1. Sorghum bicolor—
2. Sorghum durra—
3. Sorghum chinensis—

1. grain sorghum, Africa
2. white sorghum, India
3. red sorghum, or gao liang, China

1. Pearl millet, 
2. One cultivated African species, 
3. Forage and cereal culture, mostly in 
4. Tall plant with compact 
5. Undemanding culture, requires 

1. Pennisetum
2. Pennisetum glaucum
3. Africa and Asia
4. cylindric panicle
5. only warm temperatures and short days

1. Finger millet, 
2. Indian ancient crop 
3. Used as 
4. Yield is comparable with 
5. Requires aerated, humid 
6. Resistant to 

1. dagusa, Eleusine coracana
2. (now cultivated also in Africa), sole species of genus
3. cereal
4. wheat (2 ton/hectare)
5. soils and short days
6. fungal and bacterial diseases

1. Common, or proso millet, 
2. Initially, ancient 
3. Grains are rich of 
4. Requires short days but also has short cultivation time therefore 
5. Now cultivated mostly in 

1. Panicum miliaceum
2. Chinese culture (2,500 BC)
3. proteins (14%)
4. cultivated up to 56 latitude
5. East Europe, in U.S. only as a birdseed

1. Wild, or Indian rice was the only 
2. C4 grasses are mostly ancient 

1. grain used widely in northern tribes
2. American (corn) or African (sorghum) cultures

1. Non-grass grains—pseudocereals
2. Starch-containing plants

1. Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum Quinoa (Chenopodium) and other pseudocereals
2. Potatoes, tuber species of genus Solanum

1. Buckwheat,
2. Pseudocereals are not grasses but are
3. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum from Polygonaceae family) is one of the 
4. Yield is relatively
5. In addition to grain production, 

1. Fagopyrum esculentum
2. using in similar ways, e.g., for flour, as “true” cereals, sometimes even for breads
3. most important and old (6,000 BC) pseudocereal
4. low ( 1 ton/hectare)
5. one of the best nectar producers

Buckwheat features

1. Hardy plant (mountain origin!), but requires 
2. Two forms of flowers, with 
3. Therefore, strict cross-pollinator. Main pollinators are 
4. Grains are rich of 

1. rich and relatively wet soils
2. long and short styles: heterostyly.
3. bees: minimum two hives per hectare required.
4. proteins and microelements (especially iron)

Buckwheat history

1. Domesticated probably in 
2. Cultivated in Europe (especially Russia and France), China, 

1. Nepal (where is still used as nut) and spread across most of Eurasia
2. Canada and northern U.S. (e.g., North Dakota)

1. Quinoa 
2. Belong to 
3. Originated in Andean region, used from 2,000 BC and was plant of main importance (more than corn, secondary only to potato) in 
4. Adapted to high altitudes, easily cultivated above 
5. Yield is  
6. Contain balanced sets of useful 
7. could be used as a sole food even for 
8. Unfortunately, seeds contain weakly 

1. (Chenopodium quinoa)
2. Amaranthaceae family (close to buckwheat family)
3. Inca civilization
4. 4,000 meters
5. 2 ton/hectare
6. amino acids and microelements;
7. long journeys
8. toxic and bitter saponin which should be removed before cooking (usually by soaking in water)

Other important pseudocereals

1. Amaranth (Amaranthus spp. from Amaranthaceae): cultivated mostly in 
2. Grains are highly 
3. Chia (Salvia hispanica from Labiatae): domesticated in Mexico, used by Aztecs. Grains are rich of diverse 
4. Whattleseed (Acacia spp. from Leguminosae): 

1. Europe and America, originated from Central America.
2. diverse in microelements and proteins
3.  lipids. From 2008, recommended as “novel food” in EU.
4. original grains of Australian Aborigines.

1. Potatoes, tuber species of genus
2. Starch and inulin—polymers of glucose or fructose monosaccharides, respectively. Plants accumulate them 
3. Solanum is one of the largest plant genera (up to 2,000 species!) and includes several important plants 

1. Solanum
2. mostly in underground parts: roots, rhizomes, tubers
3. (tomatoes and eggplants) and potatoes—species from section Petota ( 15 species, all produce “potatoes’).

Morphology and other features of potatoes

1. Potatoes are tubers, 
2. Main function of tubers is 
3. Yield of tubers is high,  
4. Still, in calories yield is higher than 
5. There are almost no 
6. Plants are 

1.  enlarged parts of specialized rhizomes; buds grow into tubers in darkness
2. vegetative propagation
3. 15 ton/hectare, but 70–80% of it is a water
4. rice or corn: every 100 g contain 15 g of carbohydrates
5.  fats and low amounts (2%) of proteins
6. cross-pollinated; fruits are toxic (contain solanin)

Diversity of potatoes

1. All species from 
2. The biggest yield is from

1. Petota section may form tubers
2. tetraploid forms (2n = 48) growing in Central Andes and island Chiloe

Agriculture of potatoes

1. The best is extremely simple agriculture plus 
2. Planting is from 
3. Critical stage of cultivation is 
4. Harvesting is still not 
5. Storage requires more 

1. high energetic yield
2. potato buds, not from seeds
3. “hilling”, increasing the soil level around stems
4. mechanized well
5. stable conditions than seed storage

History of potatoes

1. Domesticated around 3,000 BC and together with 
2. Initially, used mostly as a  
3. Is known in Europe since 
4. In XVIII century, was forcedly introduced into culture by many 
5. Now, the main producers are 

1. quinoa became the main food of Inca empire
2.  freeze-dry “chunjo”
3.  1601
4. European monarchs and then became widely adopted
5. China, Russia, India and U.S.

Great Irish famine and Phytophthora infestans

1. Potato occured to be susceptible for several dangerous 
2. Pandemic of potato blight covered Europe in the middle of 
3. In Ireland, it resulted in 

1.  pathogens, e.g., potato blight “fungus” (Phytpophtora infestans)
2. XIX century (1845–1852), when potato became the main food in many northern European countries including Ireland
3. 1 million deaths and decreasing of population to 25% due to emigration

1. Colorado beetle 
2. One of the most dramatical example of 
3. In Colorado Rocky Mountains, these beetles were feeding on 
4. During World War I and then especially World War II, it became spreading across 
5. Distribution is now covered all

1. (Leptinotarsa decemlineata)
2. American invasive species in Europe
3. Solanum rostratum plants but not on potato
4. all Western Europe and then eastward
5.  North Hemisphere (except China)

1. Pseudocereals are non-grass grains, plants from families other than 
2. Starch-containing plants are accumulating

1. Gramineae but used for same purposes
2. starch or inulin in underground parts

Starch-containg plants

Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatos

Yam, Dioscorea spp.

Cassava, Manihot esculenta

Other cultivated starch plants

Starch plants of native use

1. Sweet potato, 
2. Belongs to morning glory genus 
3. Cultivated for thickened 
4. Contain 12% of starch, 5% of sugars, little 
5. Rich of vitamins, especially

1. Ipomoea batatos
2. Ipomoea from Convolvulaceae family
3.  secondary roots (tuberous roots, not tubers!)
4. proteins and almost no fat
5. vitamin A precursor beta-carotene

Sweet potato morphology

1. Herbaceous vine, 
2. Tuberous roots are 
3. Reproduction is both from 
4. Large, trumpeting, 

1. perennial plant cultivated as annual
2. large, up to 25 kg
3.  seeds and vegetative, from root and stem parts (grafts)
4. insect-pollinated flowers

Sweet potato agriculture

1. Pure tropical culture, does not tolerate 
2. Requires short days, 
3. Planting as grafts, this increases the 
4. Green part is used as a 

1. frost
2.  full sun, light soil
3. number and weight of tuberous roots (subsidiary roots)
4. forage for animals

History of sweet potato

1. Domesticated in Central America almost 3,000 BC and spread to
2. In Polynesia, it is called the “kumara”, remarkably similar to the Quechua 
3. Now two main producers are 

1.  Polynesia before European colonization
2. “kumar” in Peru: that is one of reasons for Thor Heyerdahl Kon-Tiki expedition
3. China and Nigeria

1. Yam, 
2. Several species of large genus 
3. Cultivated for tubers 
4. Frequently used as a 
5. Could be stored up to 

1. Dioscorea spp
2. Dioscorea and Dioscoreaceae family
3. (morphologically similar to potato tubers)
4.  flour
5. half-year, even in tropical climate

Yam features

1. Tubers could be huge: 
2. Contain starch, significant amounts of 
3. Hilling is an 
4. Long vegetation period 
5. Due to the size of tubers,

1. up to 2,5 m and 70 kg
2. vitamin C, and several microelements
3. important stage of cultivation
4. (up to 1 year)
5. harvesting is only manual

Yam history

1. Three most cultivated species: 
2. These species were separately 
3. During potato pandemic, D. alata cultivation started 
4. Now the biggest producer is 

1. Dioscorea rotundata, yellow yam of Africa; D. alata, water yam of Polynesia; and D. opposita, Chinese yam
2. domesticated, most probably prehistorically
3. in Europe, still cultivated in France
4. Nigeria

1. Cassava, 
2. Belongs to the tree genus Manihot from 
3. Third largest source of 
4. It is a shrub cultivated as
5. Secondary roots (not stems!) are 

1. manioc, Manihot esculenta
2. spurge family Euphorbiaceae
3. carbohydrates in the world
4. annual
5. thickening and form tuberous parts

Cassava features

1. Tuberous roots have high amount of dry mass (30%), high in 
2. Toxic, contain cyanogenic compounds which are liberating 
3. Without preparation caused a 
4. Harvesting is manual; roots are deteriorated 

1. starch, phosphorous and vitamin C but poor in proteins and essential amino acids
2. hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Consequently, should be pressed, soaked, cooked or fermented before use. 
3. konzo disease
4. fast and should be processed as soon as possible

Cassava history

1. Domesticated in
2. Went to Africa with 
3. Now, Nigeria and Thailand are 

1. Brazil around 6,000 BC
2. Portuguese trades and then to south-west Asia
3. biggest producers

1. Taro, 
2. Belongs to arum family, 
3.  origin
4. Large semi-aquatic herbs with 
5. Rhizome is inedible because of 

1. Colocasia esculenta
2.  Araceae
3. African
4.  thickened underground stem (rhizome)
5. calcium oxalate which must be removed by cooking

1. Bread tree, 
2. Large tree of mulberry family, 
3.  origin
4. Has a compound 
5. A common product is a cooked or 

1. Artocarpus integer
2. Moraceae
3. Polynesian
4. “fruit”—ripe inflorescence
5. fermented breadfruit mash

1. Sago palm, 
2. Belongs to 
3. Tree of 
4. Stem (!) is used for

1. Metroxylon saghu
2. palm family, Palmae
3. Indonesian origin
4. starch (sago) production

Andean starch tuber plants

1. Oca, Oxalis tuberosus, from 
2. Ulluco, Ullucus tuberosus, from 
3. Mashua, Tropaeolum tuberosum from 

1. Oxalidaceae, wood sorrel family
2. Basellaceae family
3. Tropaeolaceae, nasturtium family

1. Arrowhead, 
2. “Pshitola” 
3. Aquatic plant from 
4. Rhizomes are used as a 

1. Sagittaria latifolia
2.  (Dakota), “mujotabuk” (Ojibwe)
3. Alismataceae family
4.  source of starch

1. Quamash
2. Famous “Quamash”, important food source 
3. Belongs to 
4. Bulbs are 

1. (Camassia quamash)
2. of Native Americans in the West
3. lily family, Liliaceae
4. edible and highly nutritious

1. Potato bean, 
2. “Mdo” in Dakota language; belongs to 
3. Grow across all 
4. Used by Native Americans as a 
5.  tubers also contain significant amounts of 

1. groundnut, Apios americana
2. legume family (Leguminosae)
3. eastern part of U.S.
4. main starch source,
5. proteins; beans are also edible

1. Prairie turnip,
2. “Tipsi” in
3. Common plant of
4. Thick main edible after 

1.  breadroot, Psoralea esculenta
2. Dakota language
3. North Dakota
4. cooking or making flour

1. Sweet potatoes and cassava (manioc) are two 
2. Andean region contains multiple 

1. largest starch sources after potato
2. unrelated tuber starch-bearing species

1. Starch-containg plants
2. Legumes

1. Inulin plants

2. Soya beans, Glycine max

   Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

   Pea (Pisum sativum)

   Lentils, Lens culinaris

   Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

1. Jerusalem artichoke, 
2. Belongs to 
3. Tubers are rich of inulin, 
4. Plan used by eastern Indian tribes and now 

1. Helianthus tuberosus
2. Compositae (sunflower) family
3. fructose polymer, useful dietary fiber
4. spread to Eurasia

Some other inulin plants

1. Common chicory, or Cichorium intybus from the same family 
2. Chicory is cultivated sporadically as vegetable and as a source of chicory drink—
3. Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale is again an 
4. Many other Compositae (e.g., thistles) also have 

1. Compositae; this European plant became invasive in North America
2. coffee supplement; 68% of inulin in dry weight
3. invasive plant; inulin-containing root is edible after cooking
4. edible roots rich of inulin

Main characteristics of legumes

1. One of the biggest plant families, 
2. Two most important characters: 
3. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria form 
4. Consequently, all parts of legumes are rich of 

1. more than 15,000 species
2. monosymmetric flowers with banner and keel; and monomerous legume fruit
3. root nodules (for cultivation, there are special nitragines)
4. proteins, 2–4 times more than in cereals

1. Soya beans, 
2. The most cultivated
3. Seeds contain 42% of proteins including essential amino acids 
4. Nearly universal culture: 

1. Glycine max
2.  legume
3. lysine, methionine and tryptophan; plus 20% of non-saturated oils
4. used as food, as technical culture, as oil culture and for the forage

Soya features

1. Cultivated mostly to the 
2. Nitrogen assimilation is slow at the beginning of season and reach the pike 
3. Yield is 
4. Main producer is 

1. south from 50 latitude
2. when plants start to flower
3.  2 ton/hectare
4. United States, than Brazil

Soya agriculture

1. Requires warm, wet and shiny 
2. Easily grow on different soils but needs 
3. Relatively fast growing: 
4. The biggest problem is harvesting: early harvesting leads to 

1. climates; tolerates small frosts
2. crop rotation
3. 120–150 days
4. decaying of seeds whereas late harvesting results in legume cracking

Soya history

1. Prehistoric crop in 
2. Introduced in Europe and North America about the end 
3. In U.S., considered as technical and was 

1. East Asia
2. of XVIII century
3. not used for food until late 1920s

1. Beans 
2. The second most cultivated 
3. Beans” is the name of multiple cultivated legumes 
4. Seeds are rich of
5. Green legumes are also used as 

1. (Phaseolus vulgaris)
2. legume
3. (more then 10 genera), but in strict sense, there are common beans, Phaseolus vulgaris
4.  carbohydrates and proteins
5. vegetables

Beans features

1. Herbaceous 
2. High diversity of 
3. Beans should be cooked for at least 10 min at 100 C to destroy 

1. annual vines with deep roots
2. cultivars
3. weakly poisonous phytohaemagglutinins

Beans agriculture

1. Extremely heat tolerant, 
2. Does not grow well in
3. Require short days; 
4. Often cultivated inside

1. requires average watering
2.  in colder climates
3.  soil type is not critical
4. mixed crops (with corn, rice, safflower)

Beans history

1. Native culture of 
2. Spread around the world in
3. Top producers now are 

1. Central America and Mexico; important plan of Aztec civilization
2.  XIX century
3. Brazil and India

1. Pea
2. Old culture of Wold World, one of most 
3. Food and 
4. Seeds are high of 

1.  (Pisum sativum)
2. hardy legumes
3. forage plant
4. carbohydrates (14%, and 1/3 of them are sugars) and proteins (5%)

Pea features

1. Annual herb which is able to 
2. Comparing with other legumes, has extremely short 
3. The northern line of cultivation 
4. Long-day culture, 

1. climb up to 2 m with tendrils
2. vegetation period, from 65 days (!)
3. is 68 latitude
4. also requires wet soils

Pea history

1. Domesticated prehistorically in 
2. Spread to both 
3. Self-pollinated, and became a famous model plant of first 

1. West Asia; wild landraces of same species are still exist
2. Western Europe and Eastern Asia (common culture in Japan)
3. genetic experiments made by Gregor Mendel

1. Lentils 
2. One of the oldest cultivated plats, has been part of 
3. Rich of 

1. (Lens culinaris)
2. human diet since Neolitic times 
3. proteins (26%) and especially carbohydrates (60%)

Lentils features

1. Annual herbaceous vine up 
2. Less hardy than pea, requires  
3. Long-day plant,
4. Has relatively 

1. to 1 m high
2. warm season, vegetation period is often more than 100 days
3.  drought tolerant (this is rare among cultivated legumes)
4. low yield (0.8 ton/hectare)

Lentils history

1. Was domesticated in 
2. Mentioned in Old Testament since it was a common 
3. The word “lens” originated from
4. Biggest producers are now 

1. West Asia before first civilizations appear
2. food for Palestinian nations
3.  Latin name of lentils
4. Canada and India

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

1. One of primary 
2. Composition and yield is similar to
3. Has big seeds, requiring more
4. Green parts are not 

1. Indian food plants
2.  lentils (23% proteins and 64% carbohydrates, 0.8 ton/hectare)
3.  boiling time than other legumes (up to 2 hours)
4. edible as forage

Chickpea features

1. Drought tolerant and therefore 
2. Does not require
3. Prefer long-days: does not go far into 

1. cultivated in arid climates
2. specific soils
3. tropics; biggest producers are India, Pakistan and Turkey

1. Legumes are rich of proteins including 
2. They mostly require 
3. Crop rotation is needed for 

1. essential amino-acids
2. humid climates and do not need specific soils
3. most of legume cultures

Why knowing centers of origin is important

• Tracing history of civilizations alongside with history of plan cultivation
• Historical discoveries
• New landraces and wild relatives useful for selection

1. Initial hypotheses: 
2. Mentioned that distribution of ancient cultivated plants was very 
3. Found thee centers of plant origin: 

1. De Candolle (1882)
2. unequal
3. China, West Asia/Egypt and tropical Asia

1.  work (1926)
2. On the 5th International Genetics Congress, he presented his
3. Differential method: studying density of distribution on a level of varietes. Places where
4. In 1930s, he establishes “ecological passports” of territories which show 

1. Nikolai Vavilov
2.  new classification of centers based on field and collection research
3.  biggest densities were intersected become “centers candidates”
4. ecologic, economic and geographic traits

Vavilov’s centers (1926)

In 1926, he designated five centers of origin:

1 India

2 China

3 Mediterranean region

4 Ethiopia

5 South and Central America

Later, he added some (Central Asia) and split some of them

More recent hypotheses

1. Darlington (1952): several 
2. Harlan (1971): 
3. Zhukovskij (1965–1982): 12 “megacenters” (regions). All Vavilov’s centers listed, plus 

1. American centers, twelve centers in total
2. “centers of agricultural beginnings”: only six
3. several which do not produce substantial amounts of cultivated plants but still separate

West Asian center (A1)

1. Plants relatively small, 
2. Some wheats, 
3. Ancient 

1. stiff stems and leaves, drought-tolerant
2. two-rowed barley, oats, lentils
3. Egypt and Mesopotamia

Indian center (B2)

1. Xerophytes*, small leaves, rapid development and filling-out of seeds, small seeds, extremely 
2. Some wheats, six-rowed barley, finger millet, chickpea 

1. susceprible to European fungal and bacterial diseases
2. Ancient Indus Valley Civilization

African/Ethiopian center (A2)

1. Adapted to poor soils, starting to grow in
2. Fonio, tef, sorghum, pearl millet
3. Ancient African civilizations:

1.  the beginning or in the end of rain season
2. ...
3.  Aksum, Yoruba, Benin

China center (B1)

1. Mesophytes and even hydrophytes, 
2. Rice, 
3. Ancient 

1. short development, small and medium-sized seeds, relatively big leaves
2. soybeans
3. Chinese kingdoms

Central American center (C1)

1. Xerophytes and mesophytes, 
2. Corn, common bean, 
3.  empires

1. slow growing, big seeds, droughtand hot-tolerant
2. sweet potatoes
3. Ancient Aztec and Mayan

South American center (C2)

1. Mesophytes, many are tolerant to 
2. Cassava, .
3. Ancient 

1. low temperatures, big leaves, developed underground parts
2. potatoes, oca etc
3. Andean civilization

Sugars and their role

1. Mono- and 
2. Glucose, fructose, 
3. Starch (amylose + amylopectin) and 

1. polysaccharides
2. sucrose, cellobiose
3. glycogen

Sugars and civilizations (speculative hypothesis!)

1. High level of glucose uptake by
2. Increasing use of 
3. “Unsuccessful” civilizations which did not find a 

1.  nervous cells
2. sugars in human history
3. reliable source of sugars

Ethanol

1. Immediate product of yeast 
2. Pre-adaptation to alcohol from 
3. Bind to 
4. Converted into 
5. Asian flush and alcoholism are related to the genetic 

1. fermentation of glucose
2. frugivores
3. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) receptors
4. acetaldehyde (toxic!) by alcohol dehydrogenase and then into acetic acid by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase*
5. diversity of alcohol dehydrogenases

Downsides of sugars

1. Obesity, because sugars are easily convert into 
2. Diabetes, because 
3. Dental diseases, especially dental
4. Multiple sweeteners have been developed to avoid side-effects of sugars: 

1. fats
2. insulin cannot deal with large quantities of sugars
3.  caries (caused by lactobacteria taking sugars for their growth)
4. heterocyclic saccharine (in “Sweet’N Low”), amino acid derivative aspartame (in “Equal”), chlorine hexose sucralose (in “Splenda”, “Altern”). All are controversial.

1. Stevia rebauldiana,
2. Belongs to 
3. Originated in
4. Leaves contain the group of sweet 
5. Despite of multiple controversies (not approved in EU, banned in Norway and Singapore) used by 

1.  the natural sweetener
2. aster family, Compositae
3.  South America
4. glycosides, derivatives of steviol
5. Coca-Cola and PepsiCo in their “zero calories” drinks

Our native natural sweeteners

1. North Dakotan  belongs to legume family, Leguminosae
2. Contains natural sweetener 
3. Side-effects are 

1. wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota)
2. glycyrrhizin
3. hypertension and lowering of testosterone level in males

1. Sugar cane, 
2. Belongs to grass family, 
3. The oldest cultivated 
4. Contains sugars in 

1. Saccharum officinarum
2. Gramineae; it is a C4 grass
3. sugar plant
4. stem

Sugar cane biology

1. Extremely tall grass,
2. Stem phloem* juice contains 
3. Juice is pressed, filtrated, 

1.  up to 6 m tall (!)
2. 12–20% of sucrose in lower parts of stem
3. evaporated, centrifuged (to separate syrup from sugar crystals) and dried

Sugar cane agriculture

1. Grafted culture, it is not recommended to 
2. Short-day, sun-loving plant,
3. Requires irrigation even in humid tropics (!) and 
4. Vegetation period is up to 

1. wait until flowering
2.  optimal temperatures should be > 20 C
3. significant amounts of phosphorous
4. 250 days

1.  China and with Arabs—to Europe (Spain, 1150 AD)
2. white, filtrated sugar
3.  but it was not growing well there!). 
4. declining under the pressure of competition with sugar beet

1. Sugar beet,
2. Amaranth family, 
3. Same species with 
4. Has been selected from leaf and root beets for only 
5. Root contains up to 

1.  Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera
2. Amaranthaceae (or Chenopodicaceae in older classifications)
3. vegetable beet
4. 300 years: one of the youngest cultures
5. 20% of sucrose

Sugar beet biology

1. Biennial plant: first year with 
2. The “root” is actually intermediate structure between 
3. Has anomalous  
4. Roots are “white”: do not contain 

1. rosellate leaves, second year forms stem with non-showy flowers
2. stem and root in strict sense—hypocotyl
3. secondary growth (layers of tissues)
4. betalain (red pigment which probably helps red beet to protect tissues from fungi and animals)

Sugar beet agriculture

1. Hardy plant: North Dakota is one of the 
2. Yield is typically 
3. (pure sugar): compare with 
4. Some plants should be left for 
5. Susceptible for 

1. leading states in sugar beet cultivation
2. 70 ton/hectare (wet mass), and 12 ton/hectare
3. 100 and 10 for sugar cane
4. seeds (second year)
5. weeds (needs herbicides)

Sugar beet history

1. In 1747, the 
2. In 1810s, due to continental blockade of France, 
3. In XX century, sugar production was 
4. Leading countries now are

1. sucrose content was discovered
2. sugar mills were established across all Europe
3. almost doubled
4.  France, Germany and U.S.; one of biggest research centers is NDSU

1. Sugar maple, 
2. Tree from 
3. Old semi-cultivated plant of 
4. Spring sap is the 

1. Acer saccharum
2. Sapindaceae (Aceraceae in older classifications) family
3. eastern tribes of Native Americans
4. main source of sugar

Sugar maple features and history

1. Sap contains 2–5 % of sucrose, the season starts 
2. In total one tree could produce up to 50 liters of 
3. Production increased during 
4. Leading producer is
5. Analogous birch syrup from Betula is more 

1. in early spring and continues 4–8 weeks
2. sap per season for 60–70 years (from 30–40 to 100 years old)
3. Civil War
4.  Canada (Quebec)
5. poor, only 1–2% of sugars

1. Sweet sorghum, 
2. Grass, selection started in
3. Similar in agriculture, but much less
4. 10–20% of sucrose in  
5. Now cultivated mostly in 

1. Sorghum saccharatum
2.  1940s
3.  demanding plant than sugar cane
4. stems
5. U.S. and Argentine

1. Arenga sugar palm, 
2. Belongs to 
3. The source of
4. Inflorescences are used for taking

1. Arenga pinnata
2. palm family, Palmae
3.  “gur” sugar and also wine
4.  sap (17–20% of sucrose)

Arenga sugar palm features and history

1. Syrup are very easily 
2. Every day, palm tree gives
3. Old Indian culture spread into 

1. inverted (hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose) and should be evaporated as soon as possible
2.  5–7 liters of sap; the season is up to 8 weeks
3. south-east Asia

1. Toddy, 
2. African sugar palm, 
3. Monocarpic tree, 
4. Since the sap is fermented fast, it mostly used as a 
5. Starred in groundbreaking novel “The Palm Wine Drinkard” by

1. Caryota urens
2. one of the largest palms
3. dies after flowering
4. source of palm vine (1% of alcohol)
5.  Nigerian author Amos Tutuola

1. Mezcal, 
2. Monocarpic Mexican plant from 
3. The sap is rich of 
4. Used mostly for alcohols like 

1. tequila agave, Agave tequilana
2. asparagus family (Asparagaceae)
3. sugars, mostly fructose
4. mezcal, pulque and tequila

1. Yacon, 
2. Belongs to aster family,
3. Roots are rich of 
4. (FOS) such as 
5. Traditional Andean culture; had ceremonial importance in times of 

1. Smallanthus sonchifolius
2.  Compositae
3. inulin, fructose and fructo-oligosaccharides
4. kestose (F2)—“alternative sweeteners”
5. Mochica culture (Peru, 100–800 AD)

1. Japanese raisin tree, 
2. Large East Asian tree from 
3. Large fruit stalks (“subsidiary fruits”) may be used as
4. Has several medicinal properties

1.  Hovenia dulcis
2. buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae
3.  replacement for honey
4.  (e.g., helps recovery from alcoholism)

What is sweetness?

1. Nature of sweetness is not 
2. Probably due to specific 
3. These molecules have an effect on

1. yet fully discovered
2. Van der Waals forces occurring in variety of molecules
3.  sweet receptors—large proteins from G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) group

1. Miracle fruit, 
2. West African tree, belongs to tropical 
3. Berries convert sour tastes into
4. The effect is due to
5. Cultivation is now starting in Florida, approval as food additive is pending—it is 
6. Curculin from Curculigo latifolia (“lumbah-lumbah”), Malaysian herb from 

1. Synsepalum dulcificum, the super-sweetener
2. Sapotaceae family
3.  sweet tastes (!), effect lasts for 1 hour
4.  glycoprotein miraculin which is binding to sweet receptors
5. heat-resistant and may be used as a “sweetener”; there are genetically modified lettuce plants which produce miraculin
6. Hypoxidaceae family, has the same effect + it is also super-sweet by itself (500–2000 times sweeter than sucrose)

Anti-sweeteners

1. Several plants contain chemicals which are able to 
2. Indian herbaceous vine Gymnema sylvestris from a 
3. In addition, plant has an unrelated (?) effect in 
4. Used as a drug for curing 

1. suppress sweet receptors
2. dogbane family (Apocynaceae) contain gymnemic acids which suppress sweet taste for 10 min
3. lowering blood sugars
4. Type 2 diabetes and different forms of metabolic disorders

1. Two plants produce more than 2/3 of sugars:
2. Many tropical sugar plants are used mostly for 
3. Sweet taste still has 

1.  sugar beet (production is increasing) and sugar cane (decreasing)
2. alcohol production
3. undiscovered nature

Oil plants

Sunflower, Helianthus annuus

Peanut, Arachis hypogaea

“Canola”, rapeseed, Brassica napus

What are oils

1. Triglycerides: triesters of 
2. Liquid triglycerides are 
3. Hydrogenated oils are

1. glycerol and saturated or non-saturated fatty acids
2. oils whereas hard are fats
3.  hard derivatives of liquid plant oils

Oils features

1. High energy: 9 calories per gram, two times 
2. Slow metabolism, several t

1. more than carbohydrates or proteins
2. imes slower than of carbohydrates

Smoke temperatures

1. Under high temperatures, oils start to 
2. Acrolein is highly
3. Cream butter has 175C smoke point whereas many plant oils like peanut 

1. smoke: this is due to acrolein
2.  toxic (even used as chemical weapon in World War I)
3. have 250C smoke point; flax oil is an exception (107C)

Cholesterol

1. Cholesterol is a main component of 
2. However, suspicions raised that high level of cholesterol corresponds with
3. Recent experiments suggest that cholesterol level has only
4. Plant oils do not contain

1. membranes and predecessor of steroid hormones
2.  atherosclerosis (Ancel Keys’ conception of “Mediterranean diet”) 
3.  weak relation with vessel diseases
4.  cholesterol

Trans fats

1. Trans fats are products of 
2. Again, suspicion is that trans fats are related with 
3. Now most of hydrogenated oils (margarines) are 

1. hydrogenation of plant oils, they also may appear in deep fat frying
2. heart diseases
3. almost free of trans fats

Omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids

1. Essential fatty acids that may only be 
2. They probably related with lowering of cholesterol level, with curing
3. Canola, flax and soybean oils contain significant amounts of 

1. synthesized in plants
2.  Type 2 diabetes, and with general lowering of cardiovascular mortality
3. omega-3-unsaturated fatty acids (and also sea fishes)

1. Sunflower,
2. Belongs to 
3. Big genus distributed in 
4. Only one species,

1.  Helianthus annuus
2. aster family, Asteraceae
3. North and South (but not Central) Americas
4. Helianthus annuus is cultivated

Sunflower biology

1. Annual plant 
2. Young plants are 
3. Up to 65% of 
4. Used also as forage plant,
5. Coordinates of flowers in the head are explained with Vogel’s

model:

r =

p

n;  = n 137:5;

where where  is angle, r is the distance from the center, n is the

index number of the floret, and c is a constant.

1. (exception among sunflowers!)
2. Highly heliotropic
3. oils in seeds
4.  especially in northern regions

5. where where  is angle, r is the distance from the center, n is the

   index number of the floret, and c is a constant.

Sunflower agriculture

1. Requires light and aerated, rich soils; root system requires phosphorus
2. Vegetation period 
3. pollinated plant
4. Oil is pressed similarly to 
5. There are also

1. allows to use water from deep layers of soil; 
2. 70–140 days
3. Wind- and insect-
4. most oil plants
5.  nut cultivars

Sunflower history

1. Domesticated most probably in North America, widely used by native tribes in 
2. Went to Europe in 1510, cultivated as 
3. In Russia, folk selection resulted in fasciated cultivars which have 
4. In 1859, cultivation started again, 
5. Ukraine, Germany and United States are now
6. Symbol of 

1. New Mexico and other southern states
2. ornamental and forage plant and then abandoned
3. several times more seeds per head
4. now as an oil plant (Bokarev discovered the high oil content)
5.  main producers
6. Ukraine, state flower of Kansas

1. Peanut, 
2. Belongs to 
3. Geocarpic plants: fruits are 
4. One of the most 

1. Arachis hypogaea
2. legume family, Leguminosae
3. burying into the ground
4. protein-rich oil plants (53% oils, 25% proteins)

Peanut biology

1. Small, self-pollinated plant with
2. Burying structure is a 
3. Legumes are 
4. 1–2% of population have

1.  flowers positioned nearby soil surface
2. gynophore, part of flower receptacle
3. undehiscent, contain 2–3 seeds
4.  peanut allergy (consequence of high protein content)

Peanut agriculture

1. Vegetation is
2. Requires warm temperatures, average 
3. As a legume, does not need 
4. Susceptible to fungus contamination in storage: 

1.  3–5 months
2. humidity (500–1,000 mm) and light, sandy soils
3. many fertilizers
4. some fungi produce toxic aflatoxin

Peanut history

1. Cultivated species is a 
2. In valleys of Peru, cultivated from 
3. In XVII century, went independently to 
4. Biggest producers now are
5. Main crop in several 
6. Hundreds of cultivars, in U.S. there are 

1. tetraploid originated from hybridization of two South American wild species
2. 5,600 BC
3. Africa and Asia
4.  China, India and U.S.
5. West African countries, e.g., Ghana.
6. mostly “Runner” and “Virginia” groups

1. “Canola”, 
2. “Canola” stands for “canadian oil”, 
3. One of the most hardy oil plants
4. New culture, only in 

1. rapeseed, Brassica napus
2.  name of the group of cultivars of rapeseed, Brassica napus from
3. 1970s started to be used widely

Canola biology

1. Medium-sized (up to 1.5 m tall) herbaceous
2. Seeds contain high amounts of 
3. Cross-pollinated, produces significant amounts of 
4. Non-canola cultivars contain

1.  annual, cultivated as winter or as spring crop
2. unsaturated oils including omega-3 oils
3. nectar
4.  toxic erucic acid and glucosinolates

Canola agriculture

1. Relatively easy culture, requires 
2. Needs high amounts of
3. Harvesting should be fast because 

1. water and cool temperatures, long-day plant
2.  fertilizers
3. siliques are dehiscing fast

Canola history

1. Domesticated in 
2. Cultivated for a long time but mostly as 
3. In 1974, zero-rapeseed was selected which contained less than 
4. Canola cultivars are susceptible for 
5. Canola also susceptible to 
6. Biggest producers now are 

1. Europe
2. technical oil plant
3. 2% of erucic acid; in 1982, 00-rapeseed which contains almost 0% of erucic acid: canola
4. fungal diseases (erucic acid was a defense agent)
5. cross-pollination with technical rapeseed
6. China, Canada and India

1. All oil plants contain 
2. The most oil characteristics are smoke temperature, amount of 

1. oil (non-saturated triglycerids) in seeds
2. cholesterol, amount of trans fats and omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids

1. Olive, 
2. One of the oldest oil plants, also used as
3. Belongs to olive family, 
4. Relatively hardy plant despite of 

1. Olea europaea
2. vegetable
3. Oleaceae
4. evergreen life form

Olive biology

1. Evergreen,
2. Starts to produce fruits from
3. Cross-pollinated with
4. Oil does not contain 

1.  long-lived (up to 2,000 years), small tree
2.  3–4 year (when grafted)
3.  wind
4. omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids

Olive agriculture

1. Requires dry air and lots of sun, does not
2. One tree may produce 
3. Harvested in winter,
4. Oil is pressed, outer parts are 

1.  particular to soils (but grows better on limestone soils)
2. 20 kg of fruits per year for 200 years
3.  half-manually, by shaking trees
4. fermented to remove bitter oleuropein

Olive history

1. Large historical and mythological background: from 
2. Cultivation started 
3. More than 500 cultivars; top producers are
4. Olive became invasive in 

1. Old Testament and Greek mythology to Quran
2. > 6,000 BC in Mediterranean
3.  Spain, Italy and Greece
4. Australia

1. Sesame, 
2. Belongs to the tropical genus
3. The oldest cultivated 

1. Sesamum indicum
2.  Sesamum (20 species) from sesame family, Pedaliaceae
3. oil plant

Sesame features

1. Tropical herbaceous annual plant,
2. Seeds contain 50-65% of oil; oil contains 
3. Can grow in 
4. Used entirely (green mass as a forage,

1.  vegetation 3–4 month, yield is 1–2 tons/hectare
2. phytosterols, vitamin E and significant amounts of microelements, especially iron and magnesium
3. dry climatic zones
4.  pressed cakes in bakery etc.)

Sesame history

1. Cultivation started in India prehistorically, went to 
2. Now cultivated mostly in 
3. Biggest producers are still
4. Famous also after Ali-Baba story from

1. ancient Egypt and then to Europe
2. tropics around the world
3.  India and China
4.  “One thousand and one nights”

1. Names of flower female part (gynoeceum):
2. Evergreen plans do not survive in winters because (a)  (b)

1.  pistil, ovary, style, stigma, ovule (future seed), pistil wall (future pericarp)
2. a)water in cytoplasm form big crystals (b) because leaves are still transpirate water whereas roots cannot take it from frozen soil

Testosterone

1. In prenatal development, induces
2. Generally, promotes growth of 
3. Growth of muscle system stimulates 
4. Has androgenic effects: secondary 
5. Regulates fight-or-flight response, 
6. Present in both males and females in

1. gender identity
2. muscle system through facilitation the synthesis of proteins
3. growth of bones
4. sex characteristics, sperm development
5. aggressive behavior and overall level of muscle energy
6.  10:1 proportion

Estrogens

1. Group of hormones, most important are 
2. Regulate female 
3. Activate metabolism, reduce muscle mass, increase 
4. Rapid changes of estrogen levels reflects on 
5. Promote development of some
6. Present in both 

1. estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2)
2. menstrual cycle
3. the level of fat storage, fasten cholesterol metabolism, promote female secondary sexual characteristics
4. mental health
5.  breast cancers
6. males and females

Phytoestrogens

1. Plant analogs of 
2. Have both 
3. Soybeans contain significant amounts of 

1. steroids, “diet estrogens”
2. estrogen and anti-estrogen effects
3. phytoestrogens

1. Red clover, 
2. First spotted because of effect on 
3. Plant belongs to 
4. Red, 2–3 cm diameter
5. European plant, used as a

1. Trifolium pratense
2. grazing sheep fertility
3. legume family, Leguminosae
4.  flower heads
5.  forage and naturalized in North America

Red clover clinical effects

1.  are two main components
2. Traditionally used for treating 
3. Now often used for a natural

1. Genistein and coumestrol
2. skin diseases
3.  hormone therapy, decreases risks of some cancers

1. Black conosh,
2. Belongs to 
3. The other name is 
4. Traditionally, also used for curing 

1.  Cicimifuga racemosa
2. butterwort family, Ranunculaceae
3. “squawroot” because of traditional use for female therapy
4. snake bites (“black snakeroot”)

Black conosh clinical effects

1. Glycosides cicimifugosides (e.g., actein) are 
2. Improve 
3. Lowering 

1. main active components
2. menopausal symptoms, also affects menstrual cycle
3. blood pressure

1. Saw palmetto, 
2. Belongs to
3. Important component of
4. Fruits are small 

1. Serenoa serrulata
2.  palm family, Palmae
3.  Florida forests
4. black berries

Clinical effects of saw palmetto

1. Contains multiple 
2. Used mostly for treating

1. phytosterols (e.g., -sitosterol) with estrogen effects
2.  prostate diseases in males

1. African Yohimbe, 
2. Belongs to 
3. Tall West
4. Bark is most rich of 

1. Pausinystalia yohimbe
2. Rubiaceae family (which is rich of medicinal plants)
3.  African tree
4. pharmaceutical components

Yohimbe pharmacological effects

1. Contains multiple 
2. Alkaloid is

1. alkaloids, including yohimbine
2.   -adrenergic blocker, widely used as sexual stimulant

1. Mediterranean garden rocket, 
2. Herbaceous plant from 
3. Used as leaf vegetable and as a 
4. Source of 

1. Eruca sativa
2. cabbage family, Cruciferae
3. sexual stimulant from Roman times
4. digestive alcohol, rucolino

1. Indian gokharu,
2. Eurasian herbaceous creeping plant from 
3. Fruits have extremely large 
4. Important traditional part of Indian 
5. Main component is

1.  Tribulus terrestris
2. Zygophyllaceae family, naturalized in U.S.
3. spines dangerous even to bicycles
4. Ayurveda and Unani medicinal traditions
5.  steroidal protodioscin, increases the level of testosterone

1. West Asian tonghat, 
2. Small Indonesian tree from
3. Main active components are extremely bitter 
4. It is shown that root extract increase 
5. Now widely used as 

1. Auricoma longifolia
2.  Simaroubaceae family
3. (50 times more than quinine) quassinoids (e.g., eurycomalactone) from tree toots
4. sperm count, testosterone level, and even anti-cancer
5. anabolic for bodybuilders

1. Central American damiana, 
2. Shrub from 
3. Native Americans prepared
4. It is shown that constituents may take part in 

1. Turnera diffusa
2. Turneraceae family, native to southern U.S. and Mexico
3.  “damiana tea” as sexual stimulator
4. estrogen metabolism

1. Southern American walking palm,
2. Small palm from 
3. Widely known as “walking plant” because it constantly develops new 
4. Inner parts of stilt roots are used as

1.  Socratea exorrhiza
2. Amazonian forests
3. stilt roots whereas older are decaying
4.  aphrodisiac

There are two main ways for plants to influence human

reproductive system:

 produce hormone analogs, or act directly to

nervous centers

Safflower, Carthamnus tinctorius

Oil palm, Elaeis guineensis

New oil cultures

Lesser oil plants

Technical oil plants

1. Safflower, 
2. Belongs to Mediterranean
3. Highly
4. Multiple uses: as oil plant, as 

1. Carthamnus tinctorius
2.  Carhtamnus (distaff thistles) genus and atser family, Compositae
3.  ornamental cultivated plant
4. medicinal plant and as saffron substitute (red dye)

Safflower features

1. Achenes contain 
2. Oil contains mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and therefore may be used for
3. Flowers contain 
4. Rich of 

1. 15–35% of oil
2.  painting (fast-dried oil)
3. carthamin which produces a red-brown color, often used in food production
4. tokoferols (vitamin E)

Safflower history

1. One of the most ancient cultivated plants, used in
2. Went to Japan and used there as a plant which dye had ceremonial meaning

1.  Old Egypt
2. dye had ceremonial meanings

1. Oil palm,
2. Used in Africa from prehistorical times, but the mass 
3. Belongs to
4. Palm oils are semi-solid at the 

1.  Elaeis guineensis
2. cultivation started only in the beginning of XX century
3.  palm family, Palmae
4. room temperature: plant fats

Oil palm features and history

1. Oil is reach of saturated fatty acids, especially 
2. Yield is high (up to 100 kg of oil from one tree per year), and therefore palm oil is very 
3. Biggest producers are 
4. Also famous a s the source of

1. palmitic (C16) acid, also rich of carotenes and often has a reddish color
2. common oils in tropics
3. Malaysia ands Indonesia
4.  Greek fire and napalm (mixture of palmitic acids, several other organic compounds and aluminum)

1. Sacha inchi, 
2. South American, Amazonian tree from 
3. Capsules contain several large seeds,
4. Sacha inchi oil contains highest amounts of 
5. Cultivation started in 

1. Plunkettia volubilis—perspective oil plant
2. spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
3.  rich of oil (60%)
4. omega-n-unsaturated fatty acids (93%!) and vitamin E (by the way, emu oil is the one of the few animal oils which also contains high high amounts of omega, up to 20%)
5. 2000s, mostly in Peru

1.  Cocos nucifera
2. technical and nut plant
3. rich of saturated fatty acids, especially lauric acid (48%)
4. coconut milk (wet process), or copra (dry process)
5.  (lubricant, fuel, cosmetics)

1. Soybeans,
2. Apart from protein food, soybeans produce one of 
3. Soybean oil is rich of
4. Soybean oil may also be used for 

1.  Glycine max
2. most widely used cooking oil, with high smoke point (232C)
3.  poly-unsaturated fatty acids (especially 2-unsaturated linoleic, 51%)
4.  painting (because it is drying slowly), as insect repellent, as fuel, and as fixative to essential oils

1. Flax, 
2. Obtained from flax (Linum usitatissimum from Linaceae family) which is also used as
3. Bright yellow, very fast drying oil because it is rich of triply 
4. Normally, used as a technical substance for painting, for finishing wood, for linoleum (one of the first half-synthetic floor covering) and also as rich and 

1. Linum usitatissimum
2.  technical plant and will be covered in more details later
3. unsaturated fatty acid, -linolenic acid (up to 55%), smoke point is low (107C)
4. useful food supplement ( -linolenic acid = !-unsaturated acid, EFA)

1. Cottonseed, 
2. Extracted from seeds of 
3. Oil contains up to 52% stearic (monounsaturated) fatty acid, very stable (does not dry) and with
4. Used in many foods, especially for 
5. High of 
6. Contain amounts of gossypol—biologically active phenolic compound which may be used in

1. Gossypium spp.
2. cotton (several species of Gossypium from Malvaceae family)
3.  high smoke point (232C) [Rice oil has the highest smoke point, 254C]
4. salad dressings and chips, for deep frying
5. tokoferols (vitamin E)
6.  medicine (e.g., as contraceptive, for curing viral infections etc.) but should be removed from food oil

1. Grapeseed, 
2. By-product of winemaking, extracted
3. Similarly to soybean oil, rich of
4. Used similarly to 
5. Has high medicinal value: contains 

1. Vitis vinifera
2.  from grape (Vitis vinifera from Vitaceae family)
3. 2-unsaturated linoleic acid (72%)
4. cottonseed oil: salad dressings and deep frying
5. phytoalexin (plant non-specific immune chemical) resveratrol (also component of red wine) which is anti-cancer and anti-hypertensive drug

1. Cocoa butter, 
2. Cocoa butter from Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae family) is plant fat,
3. Has 37C melting temperature and therefore used a lot as a 
4. Normally, does not contain 

1. from Theobroma cacao
2.  rich on non-saturated fatty acids (stearic and palmitic together 60%)
3. subsidiary oil in medicine (e.g., in suppositories) and in cosmetics; also used for making white chocolate
4. theobromine and caffeine (components of dark chocolate)

Essential oils

1. Mixture of 
2. Used for 
3. The most famous are probably 

1. hydrophobic components bearing plant odors
2. aromatherapy and in cosmetics
3. rose oil and eucalyptus oil

1. Ylang-ylang, 
2. Tree from custard 
3. Fast-growing tree from 
4. Has diverse medical applications, used for 
5. Comoros is the biggest exporter of 

1. Cananga odorata
2. apple family (Annonaceae) which is cultivated for perfume oil
3. Indonesia
4. cosmetics and in aromatherapy 
5. ylang-ylang (29% of its annual export)

1. Camphor tree, 
2. East Asian tree from 
3. Contain multiple aromatic substances, e.g.,
4. Camphor use has the old history, it still has a 
5. It is a Totoro tree from H. Miyazaki’s 

1. Cinnamomum camphora
2. laurel family, Lauraceae
3.  camphor—unusual hydrophobic molecule
4. high ceremonial lue in Hinduism, used in sweets, for aromatherapy and in fireworks (highly flammable)
5. “My neighbor Totoro” anime film

1. Oil palm and cocoa tree produce high amounts of 
2. The most promising contemporary oil cultures are 

1. plant “fats”
2. canola and sacha inchi

1. Tung, 
2. Small East Asian deciduous tree from
3. Highly poisonous seeds contain one of the best drying 
4. Used for finishing wood

1. Vernicia (Aleurites) fordii
2.  spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
3. oils, rich (82%) of 3-unsaturated -eleostearic fatty acid
4.  (especially for musical instruments) and other staining processes

1. Castor oil plant, 
2. African and Indian shrub from 
3. Cultivated as 
4. Seeds are poisonous, but contain (95%) unique 
5. Widely used in traditional medicine as laxative, now used in many modern 
6. In fascist Italy, was widely used for intimidation of 

1. Ricinus communis
2. spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
3. annual in temperate regions
4. castor oil containing hydroxylated ricinoleic oil (unsaturated oil with –OH group)
5. drugs as a component, and also as technical oil for lubrication, making plastics etc.
6. Mussolini opponents (oil is not poisonous but in large quantity may be harmful)

1. Jojoba, 
2. Shrub of its own family 
3. Name is a result of botanical mistake: 
4. Seeds contain unique liquid wax (10C is a melting point): combination of 
5. Jojoba “oil” is odorless, colorless and 
6. Widely cultivated in

1. Simmondsia sinensis
2. (Simmondsiaceae) native to southern North America
3. botanist J. Link misread label “Calif” as “China”
4. long-chained fatty acids and fatty alcohols
5. oxidatively stable, used a a substitute for sperm whale oil: cosmetics, as stable lubricant (it is not digested for most organisms); and now also as biofuel
6.  Arizona, California and Mexico

Fruits—and vegetables

1. The main “common sense” difference is the low amounts of 
2. However, there are multiple
3. In addition, pumpkins and relatives (melon, watermelon, squashes) normally treated as
4. Morphologically, fruits are fruits 

1. sugars in vegetables, plus tree origin of fruits
2.  exceptions: beet, avocado, plantains etc.
3.  separate group
4. (and sometimes seeds like litchi or pomegranate, or riped inflorescences like pineapple or fig), and vegetables are everything else

Main components of fruits

Water

Dietary fiber

Sugars

Organic acids

Vitamins

Dietary fiber

Polysaccharides

Lignin

Other constituents of plant cell walls (glycoproteides etc.)

Improve intestinal transit, lowering the risk of colorectal cancer

Fruit sugars

1. Mostly
2. Sweeter 1.7 times more than sucrose, but

1.  fructose and its derivatives (kestoses)
2.  only at room temperature

Organic acids

Malic (Pyrus malus, apple and other Rosaceae fruits)

Citric (Citrus fruits etc.)

Tartaric (e.g., in wine)

Are good antioxidants

Fruit vitamins

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

Pro-vitamin A (-carotene)

Other carotenes (lycopene etc.)

Specific components which are restricted to few

species

Lipids

Starch

Gums, mucilages, pectins

Astringent chemicals (e.g., tannic acid)

Aroma compounds

Other secondary* metabolites (latex, alkaloids, glycosides)

Rosaceae in general

1. Medium-sized family (3,000 species) of small trees, shrubs and herbs from 
2. Flower contains numerous
3. Fruit is mostly

1. subtropical and temperate regions
2.  stamens (secondary multiplied), free pistils and hypanthium
3.  fleshy

Rosaceae groups

1. —herbs or shrubs, leaves often compound, receptacle large, fruit aggregate
2. —shrubs or trees, leaves simple, receptacle small, fruit often monomerous
3. —trees, leaves simple, receptacle and pistils fused

1. Rosoideae
2. Spiraeoideae
3. Maloideae

1. Rosaceae with multiple 
2. Most 
3. Rosa is 
4. Rubus and Fragaria are also widely

1. (aggregate) fruits
2. primitive group
3. ornamental and medicine plant
4.  cultivated

1.  herbs
2. raspberry (Rubus idaea) and blackberry, Rubus caesius forms and hybrids

Rubus features

1. Two aboveground stem types: 
2. Tangled genetic systems: apomixis,
3. Fruits contain (among other)

1. primocane and floricane, plus underground rhizomes
2.  polyploidy and even permanent pentaploidy (2n = 35)
3.  salycilic acid and different antioxidants

1. Fragaria ananassa, 
2. Octoploid (2n = 56) hybrid species of two other octoploid strawberries,
3. Garden hybrid, first occurrences are from
4. Herb with runner stems and 

1. strawberry
2.  Fragaria virginiana from North America and F. chiloensis from Chile.
3.  1740
4. accessory multiple nut fruit (the edible part is a receptacle)

Strawberry features

1. Susceptible to multiple diseases, often cultivated in 
2. Cultivated as
3. Long-day cultivars flower early in

1. semi-artificial conditions as plasticulture
2.  annual or perennial
3.  May and capable to produce fruits in June

1.  temperate fruit families
2. long selection involved multiple hybridization

1. Rosaceae fruits
2.  Other temperate and subtropical fruits

1. Rosaceae with pome fruits (end)

2. Citrus and related genera

   Important tropical fruits

1. Sorbus spp., 
2. Large (up to 200 species) genus occurred in 
3. Most species have 
4. European rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), and
5. Fruits are mostly used for 

1. mountain ash
2. North America and Eurasia
3. edible fruits
4.  common whitebeam (Sorbus aria) are main cultivated species (also as ornamentals)
5. wines, jams and jellies; bitter taste is normally gone after first frosts

1. Crataegus spp.,
2. More than 200 species of shrubs ans small trees from 
3. Many species are cultivated for their
4. Used in multiple traditional medicine practices, one proven use in 

1.  hawthorn 
2. Eurasia and North America
3.  fruits and also as ornamentals, for aroma compounds and/or as tea surrogate
4. treating chronic heart diseases

Citrus and related genera

1. Belong to Rutaceae, 
2. East Asian and/or
3. Have specific hesperidium fruit with

1. ruta family, often treated as separate subfamily, Aurantioideae
2.  Indonesian origin
3.  flavedo exocarp, albedo mesocarp and membrane endocarp covered with juicy hairs

1. Trifoliate,
2. Spiny, hardy citrus, with compound leaves, growing 
3. Used as a rootstock for
4. Fruits are bitter but contain 

1.  Poncirus
2. even in warm temperate regions
3.  grafting other species
4. vitamins and microelements

1. Orange, 
2. Covered in 
3. To add: mostly
4. Also used as a

1. Citrus sinensis
2. presentation
3.  subtropical (not tropical) culture
4.  rootstock for other species (e.g., grapefruit)