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| Non-Consequential Theories |
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Virtue-Ethics / Natural Law / Natural Rights / Kants Theory / Contractarianism
theories base morality on factors other than the results or outcomes of actions. These other factors can include duties, obligations, rights, laws of nature, or social contracts |
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| theory of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle focuses primarily on personal character, and emphasize the goal of personl excellence by doing the right thing as a result of focusing on certain virtuous character traits |
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theory emphasizes conduct based upon the perceived order inherent in the universe
- Thomas Aquinas |
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theory emphasizes the exclusive protection of and reliance upon basic human rights. JOHN LOCKE's key principle is the fundamental duty to avoid violating the rights of others
- JOHN LOCKE |
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bases moral right and wrong on self-derived moral duties determined through reason and intuition. The theory is founded on individual moral autonomy and the Categorial Imperative, which includes the ethical principles of UNIVERSALITY and RESPECT FOR PERSONS
- Immanual Kant |
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"Ethics as Fiarness" theory bases ethics on the value of justice and fairness. Since people's perceptions of fairness are influenced by personal self-interest, this theory provides processes to help remove self-interest from personal considerations, enabling people to understand what an ideal, fair solution would be.
- JOHN RAWLS
"Think as if," |
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originator of the idea of "SOCIAL CONTRACT" - all societies have some sort of mutual understanding of right and wrong that all members share. - a shared, understood, mutual agreement.
(believed an ethical person to be one who lives within the perameters of your society's social contract) |
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| Immanual Kant's principle - states that we should base our ethical decisions on what we would logically want the universal moral standard to be for everyone. |
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Kant's assumption that our desire as humans to do the right thing, coupled with self-discipline and determined logical thinking, can overcome our own self-interested wants and needs.
(we are capable of pure logical reasoning, instead of reasoning based on self-interest ...disinterested..) |
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Contractarianism - sees fairness as the central value in ethics
- to turn self-interested motivation into disinterested reasoning -
Example: the cake & the child cutting it equally)
- His theory is how things "ought" to be (fair), not how they really are. |
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Rawl's thinking- a hypothetical imaginary situation in which the participants in a social contract deliberate about the rules of conduct that will be strictly followed once they enter the society.
Example: Imagine picturing a stadium filled with people discussing & arguing what their social contract should be. |
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the 4 CENTRAL VALUES or goods (belived that all rational contractors would try to get for themselves while voting in the original position)
- JOHN RAWLS |
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1) Rights & Liberties
2) Powers & Opportunities
3) Income & Wealth
4) Self-Respect |
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one of the 4 Central Values by John Rawls -
the contractors would want as many personal rights and freedoms as possible |
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one of the 4 Central Values - RAWLS
- Everyone would want as much power & influence on society as possible. They would also want as many opportunites as possible to improve their lives and advance their interests. |
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one of the 4 Central Values - RAWLS
- Humans require food and shelter, Money and material posessions are necessary to consistenly meet these basic needs, as well as to enjoy life's luxuries and ameneties. All participants would recognize their financial interests and would try to get money and material posessions for themselves. |
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one of the 4 Central Values - RAWLS
- In Rawl's view, this one is most important. Self- respect is one of our deepest human needs, and Rawls believes it would be irrational for people to sacrifice personal self-respect for money or power(although humans seem to do so far too often). Thus, the contractors will vote for principles and policies that maximize3 personal self-respect, and avoid any that would endanger it. |
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originator of the idea of Social Contract
(Rawls used this in his Contractarianism) |
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| NATURAL RIGHTS THEORY - humans have moral rights endowed by nature or God. |
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Kant's Theory - based on the assumption that humans have a "good will" (ignoring our personal interests was one of Kant's prerequisites)
Universality (this was borroed by Rawls for Contractarianism) |
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Character Traits - that make up a moral life
Plato's 4:Self-Control(temperence), Courage, Wisdom, Justice
Virtue Ethics - focuses on personal excellence by doing the right thing |
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ARISTOTLE's most unique ethical concept - defn. of virtues as being perfectly balanced between opposing, undesirable extremes
(Ex:Cowardice - COURAGE - Foolhardiness) |
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| Moral Virtues Vs. Intelectual Virtues |
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both maintained by ARISTOTLE
MORAL - lead to social success(successful) Self-Control, Courage, Gentleness, Witiness
INTELECTUAL - reflect what is unique and important about Human Nature
REASON, Rationality, Wisdom, Knowledge |
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| 6 types of Basic Human Rights |
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1)SECURITY RIGHTS - protect people against murder, torture,etc.
2)DUE PROCESS RIGHTS - protect against harshness & have fair trials
3)LIBERTY RIGHTS - protect people's freedoms
4)POLITICAL RIGHTS - protect political protesting, voting & assembling
5)EQUALITY RIGHTS - equal citizenship, no discrimination
6)WELFARE RIGHTS - provide education & protect from starvation & poverty |
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| Assumptions of NATRUAL RIGHTS Theory |
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1)Humans have rights & others have duty to avoid violating these rights
2)Rights from God or Human Nature
3)The Rights are the foundation of Ethics
4)the INDIVIDUAL = more important than the group
5)Human nature is Self-Interested and Individualistic
(people generally act according to their own needs & interests - we owe no moral duties to others) |
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ETHICAL DILEMMA- something not uncommon, we've heard of this before & worked through these cases
ETHICAL UNCERTAINTY- something that has never happened before, no idea about the outcome (ex: siamese twins attached at abdomen)
ETHICAL DISTRESS- you know exactly what is going on, but you have no authority about what to do |
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| Non-Consequential Theories |
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1) Virtue-Ethics
2) Natural Law
3) Natural Rights
4) Immanual Kant's Theory (Kantism)
5) Contractarianism
theories base morality on factors other than the results or outcomes of actions. these other factors can include duties, obligations, rights, laws of nature, or social contract |
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came up with the concept "the GOLDEN MEAN" - his conception of Virtues as being perfectly balanced between opposing, undesirable extremes
observed TELEOLOGY - in Nature, every kind of thing exists for a purpose (to do something) |
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every kind of thing has a purpose (or a proper function) - it exists to do something unique & special
(ex: trees function to oxygenate the planet)
teleos: "end", "goal" or "purpose" - you would consider the end or outcome of your decision in this theory |
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| Character Traits of Morally Mature people |
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Responsible, Honesty, Loyal, Knowledgeable
Plato believed in Virtue-Ethics: "Happy, fulfilled people tend to be Morally Mature people" |
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| Plato's 4 Classic Virtues |
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Self- Control (temperence)
Courage
Wisdom
Justice |
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| LOCKE's thinking on Rights |
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Human nature is Individualistic
- we have Positive & Negative Rights
It's "every man for himself" world and we don't owe each other much
Maintained almost ALL Rights are NEGATIVE.
(making a promise implies an obligation, Positive Rights generally result from promises) |
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| 2 Types of Rights & what each means |
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POSITIVE - have a positive right to something, someone else "owes" you -
Ex: children having positive rights to basic necessities of life - parents "owe" them food, shelter, clothing, etc.
NEGATIVE- freedom from interference with others
-no one else "owes" -
-you have to get it for yourself
-others should not Interfere Unfairly as you try to get it |
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Non-Consequential Theory
JOHN LOCKE - the "Equal Liberties Principal"
*Natural Rights heavily influenced America's founders!*
Assumption: ALL Humans have Equal Rights & human nature = very individualistic |
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Non-Consequential Theory "Do as I Do"
based on REASON over superstition
*Purpose of life= happiness & fulfillment (Maslow's hierarchy of needs)
Ethics= the search for the "good life" |
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| Problems with Virtue Ethics |
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1)who picks the virtues everyone should follow?
2)it can lead to Ethical Relativism (what makes one virtue better than another or more important?)
3)can lead to "CHARACTER TRAP"
(people already think they are good) |
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| Who were the "Great Lights" of Ancient Greece? |
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| Socrates / Plato / Aristotle |
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| Socrates / Plato / Aristotle |
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SOCRATES- oral teacher, martyr, social irritant - paved the way ... Reason over superstition
PLATO- student of Socrates, best writer, founded the "Academy", wrote the "Republic", we know Socrates existed because of his Dialogues(conversations) writing..
ARISTOTLE- best thinker, organizer, Naturalisic & Scientist - opened school of philosophy "Lyceum"
- he came behind Socrates & Plato w/ collective thoughts & ideals |
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| Steps in applying Virtue Ethics |
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1)Assume the natural human desire for happiness and fulfillment
2)Determine the Virtues called for by the situation
3)Evaluate options by balancing various virtues on the "Golden Mean" Continuum
4)Choose the wisest course of action, consistent with the virtues of the Golden Mean |
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| Steps in applying Natural Rights Theory |
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1)Consider all possible actions
2)Eliminate any options that clearly violate anyone's negative rights
3)Determine whether any remaining options represent positive rights (and their duties)
4)All actions that do not violate any positive or negative rights are morally ethically permissable
(JOHN LOCKE) |
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| Independent Character Traits |
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during a religious rebellion time
Primary goal: to free PEOPLE from teh domination of moral authorities by SEPARATING RELIGION AN MORALITY |
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| Categorical Imperative - Kant's KEY Principles |
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| UNIVERSALITY -act constanly with the universal standard & RESPECT FOR PERSONS |
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| Kant's DEONTOLOGY (deontology= ethical theory concerned with DUTY & rights) |
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The result of Kant's system is freedom (autonomy) /
Freedom from OTHERS (moral authorities / FREEDOM from SELF(self-destrucitve desires) |
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JOHN RAWLS' central problem
- Humans are self-centered
/ How could we have a "FAIR" society? |
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Contractors=voters / = a "backwards blindfold" - you're only able to see a little of the info (like in scenarios we're only given part to begin)
-the Veil of Ignorance forces people to vote "DISINTERESTEDLY"- not aimed towards any specific persons interests (Pure Reason) |
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| EGOISM- Human nature self-centered / VIRTUE-ETHICS- primary goods (courageous, responsible) / KANT- Univerality(like the Golden Rule), disinterested reasoing / NATURAL RIGHTS- Equal Liberties Principle, protect individual rights / UTILITARIANISM- contractors vote to benefit as many as possible, though PROTECTING THE LEAST ADVANTAGED |
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God's Will IS Ethics! Without God there are no ethics or morals.
-This can include any religion if they belive in a DIVINE BEING.
-Whatever God does not prohibit is morally permitted, whatever God forbids is morally excluded and whatever God commands is morally required. |
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| In search of God's will, one may: |
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| -USE HUMAN REASON(interpretation)-environment, language taught - RELY ON CONSCIENCE - USE PRAYER(communication) - Include SACRED SCRIPTURE (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) - REQUIRE FAITH(belive in unknown) "Hope" - FASTS - PILGRIMAGES(missionary trips) |
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| allows one to choose between good & evil |
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| leads to varying religious beliefs. God's commands may be interpreted as general (ex: "Do not Kill") |
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| Confucian, Buddhism, Taoism(Dowism) all believed what? |
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| they all believed in ENLIGHTENED HUMANS (not a divine being) |
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| Natural- no Supreme Beings |
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| Steps in applying DIVINE COMMAND |
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- 1)Evaluate the Problem-identify the moral issue, what decision needs to be made?
- 2)Determine God's will-by consulting various resources
- 3)Make a Decision confirming your behavior
- 4)Apply God's will to the situation |
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