Term
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Definition
| The study of the interactions of an organism or species with the living and non-living factors of the environment |
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Term
(Growth and Survival Traits)
(RED)
What Traits distinguish one species from another? |
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Definition
i. Growth rate
ii. Lifeform
iii. Life span
iv. Biomass allocation
v. Ability to withstand environmental conditions
vi. Rooting depth
vii. Photosynthetic pathway
viii. Nitrogen fixation
ix. Mycorrhizal host
x. Phenology |
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Term
(RED)
Why do species occur where they do?
example: why do some things live in shade? |
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Definition
Response to environmental conditions:
Abiotic:
Drought, heat/cold, Inundation, fire, Sun/shade, Edaphic properties
Biotic:
Grazing, Predation, Fossorial Mammal, Disturbance, Human disturbance |
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Term
| What is the primary method by which plants establish in new areas? |
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Definition
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Term
(RED)
Which reproductive traits differ among species? |
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Definition
Age of first flowering
Phenology (timing)
Pollination method
Self-compatible?
Seed size
Seed quantity
-------------------------
Seed dispersal
Seed longevity
Synchroneity? |
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Term
(RED)
What are seed dispersal methods? |
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Definition
Hydrochory
Anemochory
Zoochory (internal or external)
Gravity
Ballistic (self-propelled) |
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Term
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Definition
| Some plants flower consistently, others irregularly |
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Term
| Now that we have thought about individual species, what happens when we think of them together in communities? |
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Definition
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Term
| What kind of webs are defined in trophic interactions? What are their traits |
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Definition
Nest webs: Each species rely on each other to nest
Food webs: Each species relies on each other to eat |
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Term
| What are the three main classifications of organisms in trophic webs? |
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Definition
Producers
Consumers
Primary (herbivores/omnivores)
Secondary (omnivores/carnivores
Decomposers |
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Term
(RED)
What is a keystone species? |
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Definition
A species that has a disproportionate effect on the environment relative to its biomass
May structure ecosystems, determine the types and numbers of other species in a community
Examples? Predators can greatly effect prey behavior |
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Term
(RED)
What is a trophic cascade? |
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Definition
| Occur when predators reduce the abundance of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation |
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Term
| "What if the sea otters disappear?" |
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Definition
| Greatly simplified food web...Nothing is eating the sea urchins so the urchins eat all the starfish and it continues on |
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Term
| What happened in Yellowstone (wolves)? |
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Definition
Wolves ate a lot of elk and the Aspen populations went back up.
The elk stopped browsing the riparian areas and moved into the uplands
Wolf population increased/ elk population decreased |
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Term
| How can predators effect landscape levels? |
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Definition
| Wolves gone, more elks eating trees on river banks, river banks have increased erosion rates |
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Term
Is wolf reintroduction passive restoration?
Other examples?
Advantages and disadvantages of this approach?????? |
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Definition
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Term
(RED)
What should be used as targets for restoration? |
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Definition
Many targets possible:
All native species
Mostly native species
Pre-settlement (1850) composition
Pre-European (1491) composition
Pre-Native American (??) composition
Pre-historic (13,000 BP) composition |
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Term
| How should we establish goals? |
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Definition
Based on ecological assessment
Also based on context:
Social
Cultural
Economic
Political
Moral
Aesthetic
------------------
Example: Carbon offsets
Must be established a priori
May or may not be historical |
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Term
| What are some non-historical restoration goals? |
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Definition
Non historical targets:
% native species
Diversity metrics: total vs. patch diversity
Abundance of Focal species: rare or keystone species
Ecological Processes: nutrient cycling, hydrologic attenuation |
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Term
| What are some challenges to setting goals |
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Definition
Incomplete information
Uncertainty about future
Industrial rates of change
Ecosystems are complex
Spatially and temporally dynamic
Initial conditions matter |
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Term
| What do successful restoration models require? |
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Definition
| May need sequential references with which to assess restored states |
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Term
| What is a restoration model? |
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Definition
Developmental trajectories
Especially required for long-term goals |
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Term
| How can thinking about biodiversity guide restoration practice? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are some of the causes of the necessity for dry forest restoration? |
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Definition
Anthropogenic alterations
High Grade Logging
Fire Suppression |
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Term
| What are dry forest restoration objectives? |
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Definition
Plan and Treat and Multiple Scales
Build resistance to wildfire
Promote resilience to insect outbreak
Conserve Old-growth structure
Sustain local communities
Create and maintain management options |
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Term
| What are some dry forest restoration principles and their effects? |
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Definition
Reduce surface fuels -> Reduces potential flame length
Increase height to live crown -> Requires longer flame length to begin torching
Decrease crown density -> makes tree-to-tree crown (fire less probable)
Keep big trees of resistant species -> Less mortality for same fire intensity |
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Term
| What is Clump distribution? |
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Definition
| A major premise used in dry forest restoration |
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Term
| What are the most important strategic foci when deciding how to restore a dry forest area? |
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Definition
Clump size and distribution
Tree type choice
Decide whether or not to keep old trees
How to thin
Isolate certain species?
Preserve wildlife habitat? |
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Term
| Where does the cluster method work well (dry forest restoration) |
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Definition
Even aged stands with few old trees
high graded stands with some old trees
Plantations: PCT |
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Term
| Where are cluster methods not useful? (dry forest restoration) |
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Definition
Stands with major tree health issues
Stands of where most of desired density is comprised of old trees |
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Term
| What are the three elements of biodiversity? |
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Definition
Structure
Composition
Function |
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Term
(RED)
How relevant are biodiversity elements (Structure, Composition, Function) as restoration goals? |
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Definition
STRUCTURE:
Variables are:
Easy to measure
Static (don’t change quickly)
A common restoration criterion
Focus on mean values and, increasingly, range of variation
Might reflect particular site differences
Ignores mechanisms that maintain structure
COMPOSITION:
Variables are:
Somewhat easy to measure (need ID skills)
Fairly static (don’t change quickly)
A common restoration criterion
Ignores mechanisms that maintain composition
FUNCTION:
Variables can be:
Difficult to measure (e.g., CO2 flux)
Dynamic – fluctuate spatially and temporally
Need to choose the right variable!
Requires strong understanding of ecosystem |
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Term
| Why is Function unique in comparison to Structure and Composition? (Biodiversity? |
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Definition
More generic than structure or composition
E.g., same process can occur with different suites of species
More relevant in light of climate change?
Often assumes that structure and composition will develop once processes are ‘fixed’
E.g., estuarine restoratio |
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Term
| What would define a structural approach (biodiversity) to removing trees in a project? |
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Definition
Decide on desired forest structure (e.g., using reference data)
Compare extant and desired structures to develop thinning prescription:
How many trees to cut
Which sizes of trees to cut
Model how ecosystem process (fire behavior) responds to treatment |
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Term
| What would define a compositional approach (biodiversity) to removing trees in a project? |
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Definition
Favor some species over others
E.g., Retain fire-tolerant species, remove fire-sensitive species
Not a primary focus in SW:
Forest contains few tree species
Tree species present haven’t changed greatly
Invasive species |
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Term
| What would define a functional approach (biodiversity) to removing trees in a project? |
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Definition
Decide on desired fire behavior
Model fire behavior under various stand management alternatives:
How many trees to cut
Which sizes of trees to cut
Choose simplest alternative that achieves desired fire behavior
Measure resulting forest structure |
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Term
(RED)
What is a keystone species? |
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Definition
A species that if removed will greatly alter the environment.
It has a disproportionate effect on the environment relative to its biomass |
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Term
(RED)
What is a keystone process? |
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Definition
| A process necessary to the balance of an environment. Removal or alteration will guarantee a shift in the environment. |
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Term
(RED)
How does fire work as a keystone process? |
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Definition
Rationale:
Forests were maintained in an open state by fire
Fire is missing now, so let’s put it back |
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Term
(RED)
What are reference dynamics? |
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Definition
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Term
| Are approaches to biodiversity exclusive? |
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Definition
| No they are interchanging and usable in coexistence |
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Term
| What are the scales of biodiversity? |
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Definition
Genetic
Population / species
Community / ecosystem
Landscape |
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Term
(RED)
How do the scales of biodiversity matter in restoration? |
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Definition
GENETIC:
How much genetic variation do you want in planting stock?
Horticulture: little
Restoration: lots
Clonal plants: very little genetic variation
Adaptation to site
POPULATION / SPECIES
For a given species:
Where to plant it?
Clustered?
Evenly distributed?
How many to plant?
When to plant it?
All same age, or in cohorts?
COMMUNITY / ECOSYSTEMS
Which species to plant together?
Relation between species and environmental conditions
E.g., wet habitats
Interactions – pollinators, etc.
Scale that receives most attention during restoration
LANDSCAPE
Relation of restored areas to matrix
Energy and nutrient flows
Distribution of patches
Edges
Connectivity |
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Term
| How / why do disturbances matter for restoration? |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes the resource, substrate availability, or physical environment |
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Term
(RED)
Examples of disturbances?
Abiotic
Biotic
Anthropogenic |
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Definition
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Term
| Why do disturbances differ? |
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Definition
Ecological legacies
Historical contingency
Resource availability
Frequency
Patch size
Specificity
Pattern and process |
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Term
| What is an ecological legacy? (Disturbances) |
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Definition
| the living organisms, dead organic matter, and the physical structures … that remain after disturbance |
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Term
| What is historical contingency (Disturbances)? |
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Definition
| Is a disturbance within the range of variation of historical disturbances? |
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Term
| Define resource availability (Disturbances) |
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Definition
More productive sites have more resources
We can alter productivity |
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Term
| What is frequency (disturbances)? |
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Definition
| Depending on the ecosystem, increases or decreases in frequency can cause problems |
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Term
| How does patch size play into disturbances? |
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Definition
Large patch
Regeneration succession
Small patch(es)
Patch dynamics
Little change in composition
Heterogeneity of disturbance effects increases species diversity |
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Term
| What is specificity (disturbances)? |
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Definition
Who is affected?
Species
Age
Size
Health |
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Term
| What are the three themes of disturbances and which disturbances fall into each category? |
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Definition
Initial conditions:
Ecological legacies
Historical contingency
Productivity:
Resource availability
Frequency
Ongoing dynamics:
Patch size
Specificity
Pattern and process |
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Term
| How do disturbances apply to restoration? |
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Definition
Restoration often (always?) involves intentional disturbances
Appropriate’ disturbances depend on:
ecosystem
restoration goals |
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Term
(RED)
How can disturbance ecology inform restoration projects? |
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Definition
INITIAL CONDITIONS:
Are site physical conditions appropriate relative to restoration goals?
Are invasive species present?
Do desired species need to be planted?
How similar is disturbance to historic ones in this ecosystem?
PRODUCTIVITY:
Are resource levels appropriate?
More productive sites often have more plant growth – especially by ‘weedy’ species – and faster growth rates
Some species are disturbance-dependent
ONGOING DYNAMICS:
Disturbance characteristics affect community composition and structure
How often is disturbance required?
Do disturbances target particular species?
Eg, selective herbicide use
Eg, fires to kill fire-sensitive species |
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Term
| What are the three categories of disturbance resistance? |
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Definition
Stable: able to return to starting value
Resistant: changed little by disturbance
Resilient: easily altered but rapidly returns to starting value |
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Term
(RED)
Brainstorm examples of ecosystems that are stable in spite of disturbances
(RED) |
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Definition
Background’ levels of bark beetles
Drought in prairies
Fire in fire-adapted systems
Tides in intertidal zones |
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Term
| What type of disturbance is most likely to cause unstable ecosystem states? |
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Definition
Those not found in historical contingency
Is a disturbance within the range of variation of historical disturbances? |
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Term
| What is classical succession (ecosystem dynamics)? |
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Definition
Steady, directional change to a single equilibrium endpoint
Goal = climax community
Based largely on species traits
Competitive ability
Stature
Seed dispersal
Deterministic – easy to model
High predictability
Implies that we just need to reverse the degradation
Appropriate for minimally degraded sites
Inappropriate for highly disturbed sites? |
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Term
| What are the three different views of ecosystem dynamics? |
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Definition
Classical succession
State and transition
Persistent non-equilibrium |
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Term
| Define state and transition (ecosystem dynamics) |
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Definition
Some ecosystems change rapidly:
Crash of fishery stocks
Woody plant invasion of grasslands
Little change until a threshold is crossed
Possible to have multiple equilibriums |
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Term
What are the implications for restoration of state and transition ecosystem dynamics?
(RED) |
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Definition
‘Fits’ some systems well (e.g., rangelands)
Implies more complex management than required by classical succession
Moderate predictability
Need to understand thresholds
Initial conditions important
Management may require different actions than caused original transition |
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Term
How would you restore shrubland to grassland?
(RED) |
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Definition
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Term
| What is Persistent non-equilibrium (ecosystem dynamics)? |
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Definition
Assumes external factors are more important than in other views:
Stochasticity (random events)
Past history (legacies)
Conceptual idea; difficult to ‘prove’
Difficult to distinguish from multiple equilibrium states
Low predictability
Relevant for urban settings? |
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Term
| What is meant by Manipulating Dynamics (ecosystem dynamics)? |
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Definition
Can achieve similar results by different activities at different spatial and temporal scales
Example: recovery of riparian vegetation in Yellowstone
Option 1: plant lots of trees and shrubs, protect from browse
Option 2: reintroduce wolves; elk stay out of riparian areas and vegetation recovers |
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Term
Disturbances initiate or direct subsequent ecosystem dynamics
Models of ecosystem dynamics:
Summarize our ‘view of the world’
Can guide restoration actions
Take time and effort to evaluate |
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Definition
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Term
| Contrast Stresses and Disturbances |
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Definition
Stress.
Eg: Desert organisms are adapted to seasonal and yearly fluctuations in precipitation. Drought is not uncommon.
Disturbance:
Eg. Fire, grazing, or extreme drought can affect soil quality and vegetation for many years |
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Term
| What are some values of arid desert landscapes? |
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Definition
Plant and animal species not found anywhere else
Endangered species
Indigenous food crops
Plant-derived drugs and other chemicals from drylands
Flood control, water purification, dust control, sustainable livestock use |
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Term
| What are threats to desert ecosystems? |
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Definition
Grazing
Agriculture
Roads
Military activity
Mining
Recreation
Pollution
Changes to fire regime
Invasive species
Climate change |
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Term
| What are some abiotic limitations to desert restoration? |
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Definition
Loss of topsoil
late-successional species fail when planted into early successional soils.
Moisture limitations
Pulses of establishment with rain events
Landscape scale factors
Eg. Restore low land with good
soils, but if the slope above fails… |
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Term
| What are some biotic limitations to desert restoration? |
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Definition
Inoculation not possible for most species of microorganisms
Weeds
Arid systems tend to be open; disturbance adds new open spaces
Animals
Herbivory, trampling
Biodiversity
There are always more rare species than abundant species.
Tradeoff between species that establish and stabilize the soil, but their longevity and competitive ability reduce return of native species. |
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Term
| What is the stress-gradient hypothesis? (desert restoration) |
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Definition
As abiotic conditions become more stressful, facilitation interactions become more common
Facilitation is where one species’ structure or function benefits another species
Eg. In areas of lower precipitation, seedlings rely more heavily on nurse plants. |
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Term
| What are the two main aspects of community assembly? |
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Definition
| Filters and Priority effects |
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Term
| What are the filters of community assembly? |
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Definition
DISPERSAL
Species differ in dispersal ability
Method
Distance
Barriers
ENVIRONMENT
Species differ in environmental tolerances
Shade
Nutrients
Moisture
DISTURBANCE:
Species differ in reaction to disturbances:
Type
Frequency
Duration |
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Term
| What are the implications of the filters of community assembly? |
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Definition
Species selection is one of the most important decisions made during a restoration
Only a subset of species can ‘pass through’ the filters at a given site
Restoration often:
Overcomes dispersal limitation
Alters environmental conditions
Imposes select disturbances |
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Term
| What are Priority effects in community assembly? |
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Definition
Dominance generally by species that:
Are already present at site:
Extant vegetation
Seed bank
Arrive first |
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Term
| Describe the colonization/competition trade off |
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Definition
Competition/colonization trade-off
Good colonists = weaker competitors
Permits coexistence and species replacements |
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Term
| How can restoration control priority? |
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Definition
Site preparation to remove undesired species before planting
Adding species that would not colonize naturally or quickly
Do not need to assemble entire community at once
Interseeding
Coordinate species introductions with stages in ecosystem development
E.g., UBNA - shade
Expect some species to ‘phase out’ over time |
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Term
| What are the two main principles of restoration economics? |
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Definition
Economics deals with:
Incentives
Costs and benefits |
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Term
| Responsible party vs No responsible party (who should pay for restoration)? |
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Definition
RESPONSIBLE PARTY:
Feasible for some point sources
Those who caused damage
Eg, fines for Deepwater Horizon spill
Those who will cause damage
Eg, Mitigation banking
NO RESPONSIBLE PARTY:
How are funds raised?
Taxes
General
Specific products or activities
Volunteers – money and time
Private property owners |
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Term
| Name some economic valuation methods |
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Definition
Replacement cost: Cost of restoring a damaged system
Replacement cost multiplier: Cost of restoring an ecosystem plus additional funding for lost values during damage and uncertainty
Valuing ecosystem goods and services: Evaluate economic benefits of restoring a given good or service using a tradeable substitute. E.G, watershed for restoration vs. a water treatment plant to improve water quality
Travel cost method
Hedonic price method |
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Term
| What are the three dimensions of commitment? |
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Definition
Affective: emotional attachment to, identification with, & involvement in volunteering
Normative: perceived obligation to volunteer
Continuance (Calculative): perceived cost associated with quitting volunteering |
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Term
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Definition
People continue to volunteer over long periods of time because they are committed to the cause!
Volunteer retention efforts can benefit from understanding what motivates commitment
Content of recruitment messages,
Articulation of mission statements,
Provision & organization of volunteering opportunities & settings |
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Term
| What are the 6 dimensions of motivations to volunteer? |
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Definition
Environment
Socially interact
Learning & Career
Escape & Exercise
Help community
Ego Protection & Enhancement |
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Term
| Summarize commitment motivations and findings |
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Definition
Ego is an important predictor of initial participation—recruitment
Social interactions are important for particular organizations
Community is a strong predictor of commitment—enduring involvement—retention
Social factors are more significant predictors of participation & commitment to eco-restoration volunteerism
Ecological motivations appear to moderate the effects of social interactions & community, but rarely so? |
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