Id - urges, psychic energy

Ego - conflict between id and reality develops the ego, rational intellectual level

Superego- conscience - moral aspects of personality 

Freud's Psychosexual stages

First Three

Oral (infancy through 18 months)

Anal (18 months through 2-3 years) - infant begins to develop an ego

Phallic (2-3 years to 6 years) -Oedipus or Electra complex, superego begins to form

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

(Last 2)

Latency (6-11) years - identification with same sexed parent

Genital (11 and older) - superego moves from more rigid to more flexible

Boys increased awareness of genital area leads him to desire his mother

(and to unconsciously wish to replace his father)

Around ages 4-6 for girls

A girl's sexual feelings for her father lead her to be jealous of her mother

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18mo)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18mo to 2-3)

Initiative vs. Guilt (2 or 3 to 6)

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11)

Identity vs. Identity diffusion (11 years and older)

Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)

Generativity vs. Self-Absorption (adulthood)

Integrity vs. Despair (older adulthood)

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Trust vs. Mistrust

Principle Developmental Task

Developing sufficient trust in the world

Key influence: mother, warm, loving interaction

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Initiative vs. Guilt

Principle Developmental Task

Identification with parents, developing sense of responsibility for own actions

key influence: supportive parents, identification

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Principle Developmental Task

Developing feeling of control over behavior

Key Influence: Supportive parents, imitation

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Industry vs. Inferiority

Principle Developmental Task

Developing sense of self-worth through interaction with peers

key influence: schools, teachers, learning and education, encouragement

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Identity vs. Identity Diffusion

Principle Developmental Task

Developing a strong sense of identity - ego

key influence: peers and role models, social pressure

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Principle Developmental Task

Developing close relationships with others

key influence: spouse, colleagues, society

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Generativity vs. Self-Absorption

Principle Developmental Task

Assuming responsible adult roles

key influence: spouse, children, friends, colleagues, community

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage

Integrity vs. Despair

Principle Developmental Task

Facing death, coming to terms with the meaningfulness of life

Key influence: friends, relatives, children, religious support...

Robert Havinghurst

describes development as....

a series of developmental tasks that need to be sequentially mastered

provide a rough but sometimes highly useful index of developmental maturity and adjustment within a specific culture

_____ and ____ are associated with classical conditioning

Watson and Pavlov

______ developed a model of operant conditioning

Skinner

Unconditioned Stimulus

The stimulus that is part of the original stimulus-response link

i.e. dog food

Conditioned Stimulus

The stimulus that is originally neutral but comes to be effective through repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus

i.e. bell

Unconditioned Response

response to an unconditioned stimulus

i.e. salivating for food

Conditioned Response

response to the conditioned stimulus

i.e. salivating for bell

Classical Conditioning Example

Before Conditioning: US (food) to UR (salivate)

                               CS (bell) to (No salivation) 

Conditioning Stage: US + CS (food + bell) to UR(salivate)

After Conditioning: CS (bell) to CR (salivate)

Operant Conditioning

emitted behavior = operant

elicited response = respondent

The consequences of a response determine how likely it is to be repeated

_________ reinforcement results from a reward being added to a situation after the behavior has occurred

positive

________ reinforcement results from the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

negative

Both negative and positive reinforcement serve to _______ the behavior

increase

Punishment aims to ______ the behavior

Two kinds of punishment are called ________

decrease

Punishment 1: involves a clearly unpleasant consequence being added to the situation - abuse

Punishment 2: involves a pleasant item being removed from the situation (i.e. time-away, response-cost)

Social-Cognitive theory encompasses behaviorism and cognitivism and was created by _______

and is considered a theory of __________

Albert Bandura

observational learning (or imitation)

The three effects of imitation are:

Modeling: acquiring a new a behavior as a result of observing a model

Inhibitory-Disinhibitory: ceasing or starting some deviant behavior as a result of seeing a model punished or rewarded for that behavior

Eliciting: engaging in behavior related, but not identical, to that of a model.

Definition of Self-Referent thought is:

thought that relates to our selves, our own mental processes

Estimates of our effectiveness has been termed:

self-efficacy

refers not so much to the skills required for the successful performance of a behavior, but more to the individual's beliefs about personal effectiveness

Sources of Self-Efficacy Judgements include:

Enactive (based on own actions)

Vicarious (secondhand) - comes from observing the performance of others and comparing

Persuasory (the result of persuasion)

Emotive (result of arousal or emotion)

Mastery-Oriented attribution of outcomes includes:

Individuals who attribute outcomes of their behaviors to factors over which they have control

Learned Helplessness attribution of outcomes includes:

attributing failures and successes to luck or to the task being too difficult or too easy

Implications of High Self-Efficacy include:

seek out and expend more effort on tasks they expect to be successful at

positive self-concept

positive relationship between high self-efficacy and academic achievement

Implications of Low Self Efficacy include:

avoid tasks at which they expect to do badly

negative judgments of self-worth

Piaget's Developmental Theory

Main Ideas

Defined as cognitivism or contructivism

Human development is the story of the individuals progressive adaptation to the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation

assimilation is the process of:

using previously learned responses in familiar situations

i.e. nursing infant

accommodation is the process of:

the modification of behavior in response to demands of the environment

The interplay of assimilation and accommodation leads to:

adaptation

Piaget's Stages

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

Preoperational ( 2-7)

Concrete Operational ( 7 to 11 or 12)

Formal Operational ( 11 or 12 to 14 or 15)

Piaget's sensorimotor stage is characterized by:

child understands the world largely through immediate action and sensation.

toward the end of the second year children realize that objects are permanent and have an identity of their own. 

towards the end, begins to acquire language and moves slowly to a more cognitive intelligence

Piaget's Preoperational Thinking is characterized by:

period marked by an excessive reliance on perception rather than logic

i.e. glasses of equal water poured into two different items...children asked which has more and they'll pick on or the other depending on the new look

Piaget's Concrete Operations stage is characterized by:

Thought governed by certain rules of logic

The logic is still tied to real, concrete objects and events

Piaget's Formal Operations stage is characterized by:

the ability to manipulate abstract ideas and hypotheticals

Lorenzo's (ethology) studies of imprinting show that there is a _______ period

critical period (period during which a releaser must be present for imprinting to occur)

during this period a releaser (stimulus that elicits imprinted behavior)

Bowlby's (bonding theory) research with young infants suggests that:

we have a natural tendency to form emotional bonds with our mothers during what Bowlby terms the sensitive period. 

Vygotsky's Cultural-Historical Theory concepts of culture include:

Culture makes us human, the most important tool of human culture is language

language is what makes thinking possible

Social speech (to age 3) - controls the behavior of others

Egocentric speech ( 3 to 7) bridge between external and inner speech, serves to control behavior but spoken out loud

Inner speech (7 onwards) self-talk - directs thinking and behavior, involved in all higher mental functions

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory includes an interplay between the person's characteristics and those of the environment and include four levels of context which are:

Microsystem (child in immediate face to face interaction)

Mesosystem (relationship between 2 microsystems)

Exosystem (linkage b/w 2 or more settings)

Macrosystem (the totality of all other systems)

Maslow's Humanistic theory includes an orientation that emphasises:

the uniqueness and worth of humans as individuals and includes the concept of phenomenology: how individuals view their own world

Maslow's hierarchy of needs from the bottom to top are:

Basic Needs or Deficiency Needs

Physiological (Food and Drink)

Safety (Security and Psychological Safety)

Belongingness and Love

Esteem (competence, approval, recognition)

Metaneeds or Growth Needs

Aesthetic and Cognitive

Self-Actualization

The process or act of becoming, of developing, of enhancing potential, of achieving self-awareness, or growth, of fulfillment is termed:

self-actualization

reinforcement comes from within, they make full use of their talents and potential, and are free of neurosis and other disturbances of mental health

Types of Infant Reflexes

Sucking Reflex

Head-Turning or Rooting Reflex

Moro Reflex -throwing out hands and feet when startled

Babinski Reflex -fanning of toes when tickled in the middle of the foot

Palmar Reflex (Darwinian reflex) -grasping

Perlmutter's three developmental phases in infant memory

First: Evidence found in cessation of orienting response and shorter habituation period

Second: Beginning around three months longer term memory indicated in intentional acts and recognition of things and people

Third: 8 months, memories are more abstract and more symbolic, can pay attention and try to remember

Piaget's Four Factors That Shape Development

Equilibration - tendency to balance assimilation and accommodation

Maturation - biological determined unfolding of potential

Active Experience - child's interactions with the world

Social Interaction - helps child develop ideas about things, people, and self 

Piaget's Six Substages of Sensorimotor Development

Exercising relexes (birth to one month)

Primary circular reactions (one to four months)

Secondary circular reactions (four to eight months)

Purposeful coordinations (eight to twelve months)

Tertiary circualar reactions (twelve to eighteen months)

Mental representation (eighteen months to 2 years)

Language Acquisition Support System (LASS)

Our ability to use and to understand words grows out of a complex series of interactions between infant and parents. 

The Four Achievements of the Prespeech Stage are:

Turntaking (even at the age of 2 months infants and    their mothers are taking turns)

Gestures (gazing, pointing, waving, reaching..)

Sound Discrimination

Sound Production (babbling)

First Word

6 Stages in Children's Development of Grammar

 (Wood 1981)

Prespeech Stage (before age 1)

Sentencelike word (holophrase) (by 12 months)

Two-word sentences (duos) (by 18 months)

Multiple-word sentences (by 2 to 2 and 1/2 years)

More complex grammatical changes and word categories (b/w 2 and 1/2 and 4 years)

Adultlike structures (after 4 years)

Ainsworth's Strange Situation study concluded in which 4 types of attachment

Securely Attached - uses mother as a basis to explore, upset when she leaves, but easily comforted upon return

Insecure-Avoidant - rarely cries when mother leaves, ignores or actively avoids her upon return

Insecure-Ambivalent - very upset when mother leaves, often angry when she returns

Disorganized/Disoriented - contradictory disorganized reactions to separation and reunion. 

Cerebral Palsy (also labeled significant developmental motor disability)

Defined as a collection of symptoms that includes motor problems and may also include psychological problems, convulsions, or behavior disorders. 

Is most often a congenital disorder (present at birth in more than two thirds of the  cases).  Perinatal Asphyxia (lack of oxygen at birth) accounts for as many as 20 percent.  Far more common in highly premature infants.

Developmental Coordination Disorder according to the DSM-IV exists when:

1) The person's performance of activities requiring motor coordination (crawling, walking, handwriting) is markedly below what would be expected for the person's age.

2) The distrurbance interferes with academic achievement or activities of daily living

3) The disturbance is not due to a known physical disorder

The two types of epilepsy are ____  ____ and ____ ____

grand mal (more serious form - often can be controlled with medication)

petite mal (last b/w 1 and 30 seconds, are seen in momentary absentness of the child and are often accompanied by rhythmic, fluttering movements of the eyelids -- medication is successful in the majority of cases)

More serious seizures are sometimes treated through a hemispherectomy (separation of the two halves of the brain)

Piaget's Preoperational stage falls into two categories: including _________ from 2-4 years and _____________ from 4-7 years                                                         

Preconceptual and Intuitive

Characteristics of the Preconceptual period include:

Preconcepts: similar objects are considered identical

Transductive: reasoning from particular to particular; conclusions on the basis of a single example

Syncretic: Changing criteria when grouping objects

Animistic: believing inanimate objects are alive

Characteristics of the Intuitive Period include:

Intuitive: reasoning based on mental images

Perception-Dominated: where appearances contradict logic go with appearances (i.e. squished clay balls)  

Egocentric:  inject personal point of view into the equation

Prone to classification errors: confusion among classes and subclasses, as though dividing a class into its components destroys the parent class.   

Bandura describes the three separate effects of imitation as:

Modeling Effect: evident in learning new behavior

Inhibitory Effect/Disinhibitory Effect: rewards or punishment a model receives serve to bring about some previously suppressed behavior or to inhibit current behavior

Elicitiing Effect: a model's behavior serves to evoke a related behavior in the observer

Social Referencing is defined as:

actively searching other people's faces as though looking for a clue that might guide their own behavior

Definitions of:

Theory of Mind

and

Metacognition

Recognition of others and of self as thinkers capable of deliberately selecting and manipulating ideas

knowing about knowing - begins in the preschool period

Definitions of

Gender Roles

and

Gender Typing

Range of behaviors considered appropriate for males or females with the attitudes and personality characteristics associated with each

Learning of sex-appropriate behavior

Definition of Gender Schema

Child's knowledge about characteristics associated with being male and female

Freud's gender attainment theory included the concept of _______

Introjection --- process of identifying with parents that includes the unconscious process of taking someone else's inferred attitudes, beliefs, desires, and so on, and making them part of one's own belief system. 

Kohlberg suggests two stages in his Cognitive Gender Attainment Theory that reflect the child's increasing awareness of gender

Basic Gender Understanding: describes the initial stage where the infant recognizes that there are 2 different genders and that he is a boy or a girl

Gender Constancy: refers to the realization that gender is permanant and unchangeable.  Generally present by the end of the preschool period.

The Gender Schema Theory is a more recent theory of gender typing that combines:

Kohlberg's theory (without the basic gender identity) and social learning theory

The theory suggests that both the child's growing understanding of the mature and meaning of gender and the models, reinforcements, and punishments that the immediate environment provides interact to shape the nature of the child's gender roles.

According to Baumrind there are three differenrt types of parenting styles which include:

Permissive Parenting

Authoritarian Parenting

Authoritative Parenting

Permissive parenting includes:

a nonpunitive, nondirective, and nondemanding form of parental control.  They allow children to make their own decision adn to govern their own activities.  May try to appeal to the  child's reason

Authoritarian Parenting includes:

Firm grounding of usually  clearly identified standards of conduct.  Values obedience above all, and exercise whatever power is necessary to make the child conform. 

Authoritative Parenting is defined as:

Falling somewhere in between.  Uses firm control, but allows for rational discussion of standards and expectation, values obedience but tries to promote independence. 

Some Characteristics of Piaget's Concrete Operations Stage from age 7-11 or 12 are:

Ability to Conserve: demonstrated through knowledge of identity, reversibility, compensation

Reasoning About Classes: i.e. are there more roses or flowers in a bouquet of 15 roses and 5 tulips

Number Knowledge: seriation, ordinal properties, cardinal properties.   

The information processing approach includes three levels of memory described as:

Sensory (echoic or iconic), less than 1 second, fleeting, limited, momentary unconscious impression

Short-Term (primary or working): less than 20 seconds, easily disrupted, limited capacity, working memory, immediate consciousness, active, maintained by rehearsal

Long-Term (secondary): indefinite, not easily disrupted, unlimited capacity, knowledge base, associations, passive, result of encoding 

The Four Types of Long Term Memory are:

Nondeclarative (procedural/implicit): unconscious memory, intrinsic abilities like motor skills

Declarative (explicit): conscious memory for facts and events (composed of Semantic and Episodic memory)

Semantic: stable, abstract knowledge that underlies language, principles, facts, and strategies

Episodic: personal, autobiographical knowledge, memory of self doing things   

Facts about children as eyewitnesses include:

1)The younger the child, the less the amount of information provided -however the proportion of errors stays relatively constant from childhood to adulthood

2)Children are remarkably poor at judging people's ages

3) After age 6, children often perform about as well as adult witnesses in tasks that require them to identify a criminal from an array of photos or a line-up

4) Young children are significantly more likely to incorrectly identify a suspect when the perpetrator is not present.

5) Delays b/w the crime and the testing of children's recollections do not significantly reduce the accuracy of a child's memory

Something is valid if:

It measures what it is intended to measure

Something is reliable if:

It measures consistently, i.e. getting the same measurement for the same weights on repeated trials

Catell's theory of intelligence includes: ______ abilities and _________ abilities

Fluid: reflected in an individuals' ability to solve abstract problems and in measures of general reasoning, memory ,attention span, and analysis of figures.  Because these abilities are not learned, they are relatively unaffected by context.

Crystallized: mainly verbal and are highly influenced by culture, experience, and education.  Reflected in measures of, general information, and arithmetic skills.   

Howard Gardner came up with the theory of multiple intelligences, his 7 relatively independent intelligences include:

1) Logical-Mathematical

2) Linguistic

3) Musical

4) Spatial

5) Bodily-Kinesthetic

6) Interpersonal

7) Intrapersonal

Selman's Developmental Progression in Social Cognition

(reflected in the children's ability to verbalize their perspectives and understanding of others perscpectives)

Egocentric ( birth to 6) - however, preschoolers actual behavior reflects a more advanced understanding

Social-Informational (6-8) - others have a point of view, but they would feel the same if they had the same information I have

Self-Reflective (8-10) - different points of view exist, but can't see others point of view

Mutuala (10-12) Can start to talk about different viewpoints

Social and Conventional (12 +) Increased ability to analyze

James's Approach to self-worth (1892) states that:

Discrepency between actual and ideal self

"Self-worth is a direct function of the difference between what I would like to be and what I think I am.  The closer my actual self (as I perceive my self) is to my ideal self ( the way I would like to be), the more I will like myself, and hence, the higher my self-esteem"

Cooley's approach to self-worth (1902) states that:

My self-worth is a direct function of what I think others think of me;  my worth is reflected in their behavior toward me

coined term "looking glass self"

Harter's study (1987) of 3rd to 8th graders lead to 5 important findings relating to self-esteem

1) Children have general estimates of self-worth, but also make individual estimates of self-worth in at least five separate areas: scholastic, athletic, social acceptance, behavioral conduct, and physical appearance. 

2) Children's judgements of self-worth reflect both Cooley's and James's theories

3) Not all 5 areas are equally important to every child.  Study concluded that physical appearance was the most important area for determining self-worth for all ages

4) Parents and classmates are most important sources

5) Estimates of self-worth are closely linked with affect

Attribution is described as:

an assignment of cause or blame for the outcomes of our behavior

People who accept responsibility for the consequences of their own berhvaior are said to have:

internal orientation or internal locus of control

(or to be mastery oriented)

People who are likely to contribute successes and failures to circumstances or events over which they ahve no control are described as having an:

external orientation or external locus of control

(also characterized as learned helplessness)

often attributed to luck or the difficulty of the task

Adolescent egocentrism occurs during which Piaget stage:

Formal Operations (11- 12 on)

Adolescent egocentrism can be described by two concepts which are:

The imaginary audience: a hypothetical collection of all who might be concerned with the adolescent's self and behavior. 

The personal fable: an elaboration of fantasies which have a number of themes "I am special", "I will not get pregnant", " you don't understand what real love is" and a general sense of invulnerability... 

Carol and Rest's Four Components of Moral Behavior are:

Moral Sensitivity (recognition of a moral problem)

Moral Judgement (deciding what ought to be done)

Moral Motivation (conscience, ideals, that which guides moral action)

Moral Action (implementing moral or immoral behavior)

Piaget's two stage approach to morality includes:

Heteronomy: morality of obedience, respond in terms of the immediate consequences, lasts until about age 8 or 10

Autonomy: less obedience bound, governed more and more by the individuals own principles and ideals.   

Kohlberg's Morality of Justice and Reason is comprised of _____ levels and _______ stages

3 , 6

Three levels with 2 stages per level

Kohlberg's 1st level of morality, Preconventional includes the following stages:

Stage 1: Punishment and obedience oriented

and

Stage 2: Judgements tend to be hedonistic

Kohlberg's 2nd level of morality, Conventional includes the following stages:

Stage 3: "good-boy" "nice-girl" morality - reflects the increasing importance of peer and social relations

Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation (institutions, law, duty, honor, and guilt motivate behavior)

Kohlberg's 3rd level of morality, Postconventional includes the following stages:

Stage 5: Morality of social contract - individual begins to view morality in terms of individual rights and as ideals and principles that have value as rules or laws apart from their influence on approval (rare even among adults)

Stage 6: Universal ethical - based on fundamental ethical issues, i.e. a life is more precious than financial gain.  Conscience is individual. Laws are socially useful buy not sacrosanct. 

Gillian did a follow up study to address how morality developed in females (which was left out by Kohlberg) and resulted in three stages:

In the first stage the woman is moved primarily by selfish concerns (this is what I want, need, should do...)

In the second state the woman progresses through a period of increasing recognition of responsibility to others

The final stage reflects a morality of nonviolence

4 stages of adolescent identity development

 (investigated by Marcia, based of of Erikson's work)

Identity Diffusion - no identity crisis, no commitment

Foreclosure - no  crisis, strong commitment (predetermined by others political and religious beliefs)

Moratorium - crisis, no committment, period of exploration

Identity Achieved - crisis finished, commitment made

Job Person Matching Theory of Career Choice

(Strong and Holland)

Takes into account the person's interests as well as talents.

Measures include: Strong Interest Inventory (has become a highly valid predictor of vocational choice) and Holland Vocational Preference Inventory

Ginzberg's Developmental Guidance Model includes the following three stages:

Fantasy ( to 10-12)

Tentative (10-12 t0 16)

Realistic (Late Adolescence through early adulthood and later) - has three stages exploration, crystallization, and specification.

Super's Life-Span, Life-Space Career Development Model has five stages including:

Birth/Growth (0-14) unrealistic to more realistic tentative  choices

Exploration (14-25) beginnings of career decisions ending in eventual commitment

Establishment (25-45) Continued development and stabilization of career

Maintenance (45-60) Possible career changes "recylcling"

Decline (60-death) retirement, post-retirement career

Some contributors to job satisfaction are:

-the longer people stay on the job the more prone they are to like it

-the extent to which the job reflects personal interests

-the extent to which it requires full use of the worker's capabilities and provides and opportunity to develop ideas

-Workers who feel empowered are more satisfied, more loyal, and perform at higher levels

-Income and supportiveness of work environment

A life review (which can occur at any stage in the lifespan) is described as:

involving analyzing one's life in terms of earlier goals and accomplishments, reexamining important relationships, and searching always for meaning and meaningfulness.

Schaie's Stages of Adult Cognitive Development

Acquisition (to adolescence, Piaget's formal operations, acquisition of information without regard for its long term implications

Achieving (early adulthood, concerned with achieving long term goals)

Responsibility (middle adulthood, concerned with immediate responsibilities of career and family, includes the executive state for wider responsibilities)

Reintegration (reevaluation of goals of life after retirment from work and other responsibilities) 

Reigel and Basseches created a fifth Piagetian stage labeled dialectical thinking to address adult cognitive development which can be described as:

stems from contradiction and is designed to reach a resolution

allows the application of thought to ambiguous situations, to intimate personal interactions, to business, to politics, to all of life

Labouvie-Vief's Pragmatic Thinking of Adult Cognitive Development includes:

pragmatic thinking that is sensitive to ethical constraints and practical and social considerations. 

grant wisdom to the judgments of the old.

Sternberg's Love Triangle includes:

Passion (strong physical desire)

Commitment (decision to love and stay together)

Intimacy (disclosure, affection, validation)

The combinations of Sternburg's passion, commitment, and intimacy lead to 8 different kinds of love which include:

Nonlove: no passion, intimacy, or commitment

Infatuation: passion, no intimacy or commitment

Liking: intimacy, no passion or commitment

Romantic Love: passion and intimacy, no commitment

Companionate Love: Intimacy and commitment, no passion

Fatuous Love: commitment and passion, no intimacy

Empty Love: Commitment, no passion or intimacy

Consummate love: Commitment, passion, and intimacy

Interpersonal attraction is strongly influenced by these three things:

physical attraction, similarity, and proximity

together similarity and proximity are referred to as propinquity

In South's study mate selection is highly influence by the __________ _____________ of the potential mate

perceived characteristics

men placed high value on physical attractiveness and youthfulness in women

women placed higher value on the potential mates employment stability and earnings.