Refers to impairments in the production and/or comprehension of language. 

Broca's aphasia is produced by damage to Broca's area.  It involves difficulty in producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble in understanding language.

Wernicke's aphasia is caused by damage to the Wernicke's area.  It is characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speach that is lacking in content and may include anomia and paraphasia. 

Conduction Aphasia is produced by damage to the arcuate fasciculus.  It does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia and an inability to repeat words or simple phrases.

A vision of the peripheral nervous system and is involved in the control of visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating).  It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

They sympathetic branch is involved in the mediation of the flight or fight (emergency) reactions.  Activation of this branch produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes. 

The parasympathetic branch is involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation; activation is associated with slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat glad output, and increased activity of the digestive system.

Areas of the brain that have been implicated in the regulartion of emotion include the:

• amygdala (which plays a role in the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotions and attaches emotion to memories)
• hypothalamus (which is involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses)
• cerebral cortex.  The left hemisphere governs happiness and other positive emotions, while the right hemisphere mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions

Although the left and right hemispheres are both involved to some degree in most functions, they tend to specalize. 

The left (dominant) hemisphere dominates in verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers); logical thought; and positive emotional states

The right (non-dominant) hemisphere dominates in visual-spacial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation and memory for shapes and in negative emotions.

The specailization of the two hemispheres was initially studied in slit-brain patients, whose corpus callosums had been severed to control severe epilepsy.

Hyper - is caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speed-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, exophthalmos, nervousness, and insomnia

Hpyo - is caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression.

Areas of the brain involved in learning and memory include the following:

• Temporal lobes - essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories
• hippocampus - responsible for the consolidation of long-term declarative memories (transferring information from short-term to long-term memory). 
• amygdala - plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories
• prefrontal cortex - implicated in short-term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory
• thalamus - involved in processing informationand transferring it to the neocortex

There are two main types of seizures:

1) Generalized seizures are bilaterally symmetrical and do not have good focal onset.  Included in this category are tonic-clonic and absence seizures.  Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures include a tonic stage in which teh muscles contract and the vody stiffens; a clonic stage that involves rhythmic shaking of the limbs; and postictal (postseizure) depression or confusion with amnesia for teh ictal event. Absence (petit mal) seizures are brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms.

2) Partial seizures begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body, at lease initially.  They sometimes spread and become generalized seizures.

Sleep is divided into 5 stages on the basis of EEG (electroencephalogram) patterns.  Stage:

1. the sleepers EEG record is similar to that of an awake, relaxed individual and is dominated by alpha waves

2. EEG record consists primarily of theta waves that are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and k complexes

3. Large, slow delta waves appear

4. the "deep sleep" stage, delta waves dominate the EEG record

5. Characterized by the presence of rapid eye movement and, consequently, is known as REM (dream) sleep.

Sleep patterns vary with age.  For example, total sleep time, stage 4 sleep, and REM sleep all decrease from childhood to adulthood.

There are two theories of color vision. 

According to the trichromatic theory, there are three types of color receptors that are each receptive to a primary color (red, blue, or green).  All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these three receptors. 

The opponent-process theory also postulates three distinct receptors: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black.  According to this theory, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors we perceive.