Homeostasis

ch1

-The body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes constantly.

·         Why? So that enzymes function correctly

Negative Feedback

ch 1

-Decreases the problem

-Brings body back to set point

·         i.e. not sick

Positive Feedback

ch 1

-Increases problem
-Moves away from set point
-Makes you mentally aware of the problem

·         i.e. sick

Homeostatic Imbalance

ch 1

~As we age, our body organs become less efficient, and our internal conditions become less and less stable. These events place us at an increasing risk for illness and produce the changes we associate with aging

Homeostasis Graph Vocab

ch 1

1.      Set Point--Average value maintained through homeostasis

2.      Normal Range--Body can bring you back to set point

3.      Negative Feedback...

4.      Positive Feedback...

Where is epithelial tissue found in body?

ch 3b

Describe the four functions of epithelial tissue...

ch 3b

·         Diffusion: water & nutrients to blood

·         Filtration: filters out waste of the body and tissue absorbs & filters

·         Secretion: secretes hormones into blood

·         Absorption: absorbs excess water from organs

Benefits of stratified squamous epithelium on skin, in mouth, in esophagus…

ch 3b

·         skin/basal layer goes through mitosis & pushes cells toward the surface

·         protects the skin, mouth, and esophagus

ciliated pseudostratified epithelium

ch 3b

• importance in respiratory tract...cilia in throat filter out dust & debris
• b. what cld be result of long term exposure to cigarette smoke?...cilia shrivels up leaving open "skin"àmucus builds upàbecomes dirtyàgravity pushes down deeper into lungsàcreating smokers cough

5 Symptoms of inflammation

ch 3b

1.      redness

2.      heat

3.      swelling

4.      pain

5.      loss of function

intracellular fluid VS. interstitial fluid

ch 3b

·         fluid within a cell VS. fluid between the cells

5 special characteristics of epithelial tissue

ch 3b

1.      cells fit closely together to form sheets

2.      membranes always have one free surface

3.      lower surface of an epithelium rests on a basement membrane

4.      epithelial tissues have no blood supply of their own

5.      will regenerate themselves if well nourished

2 classifications to name epithelial tissue

ch 3b

1.      number of layers

2.      shape of outside cells

The three muscles types

ch 3b

1.      skeletal

2.      cardiac

3.      smooth

Mucous membrane

ch 4

·         STRUCTURE: composed of epithelium resting on loose connective tissue membrane called lamina propria

·         LOCATION: lines all body cavities that open to the exterior

·         FUNCTION: absorption and secretion

Serous Membranes

ch 4

• FUNCTION: lubrication
• b. PARIETAL LAYER: lines specific portion of wall of ventral body cavity; folds in on self to form the visceral      layer
• c. VISCERAL LAYER: covers outside of organs in that cavity
• d. SEROUS FLUID: secreted by both membranes; allows organs to slide across each other w/o friction
• e. PERITONEUM: serosa lining abdominal cavity & covering its organs
• f. PLEURA: serous membrane surrounding lungs
• g. PERICARDIUM: surrounding heart

Cutaneous Membrane

ch 4

• 2 layers: epidermis (thin, most of body) and dermis (thick, palms and soles)
• epidermis: superficial stratified squamous epithelium
• dermis: deep dense connective tissue

Layer/Tissue Types...

ch 4

1. Epidermis: stratified squamous epithelium
2. Dermis: dense connective
3. Hypodermis: adipose

Epidermis...

ch 4

a. Blood Supply: avascularà none
b. Stratum Basale: closest to dermis; contains epidermal cells; receive most adequate nourishment via diffusion
c. Stratum Corneum: 20-30 cell layers thick

Dermis...

ch 4

a. Papillary Layer:

1.      upper dermal region

2.      uneven w/ finger like projections from its superior surface called dermal papillae

b. Reticular Layer:

1.      deepest skin layer

2.      contains blood vessels, sweat/oil glands, deep pressure receptors called pacinian

Skin Color...

ch 4

DEPENDS ON...
a. Melanin: amount and kind in epidermis
b. Carotene: amount and distance in stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue
c. Hemoglobin: amount in dermal blood vessels
d. Cyanosis: When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated it has blue shade
e. Redness: May indicate embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, allergy
f. Pallor: under some emo stress ppl can become pale; may signify anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow into area

g. Jaundice: abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are absorbed into blood, circulated, deposited into body tissues

h. Bruises: black and blue; blood has escaped from circulation and clotted in tissue spaces

Sebaceous Gland

ch 4

Location/Distribution:

1.      oil glands

2.      all over skin except palms/soles

3.      empty into hair follicles, some directly onto skin

Secretion:

1.      sebum: mix of oily substances and fragmented cells

2.      lubricant that keeps skin soft and moist

Eccrine Gland

ch 4

Location/Distribution:

1.      more numerous

2.      all over body

Secretion:

1.      sweat: clear, primarily water + salts, vitamin c, metabolic wastes (traces), lactic acid

Apocrine

ch 4

Location/Distribution:

1.      axillary and genital areas of body

2.      larger than eccrine

3.      ducts empty into hair follicles

Secretion:

1.      fatty acids and proteins as well as eccrine substances

Parts of Hair...

ch 4

a. Root: part of hair enclosed in follicle
b. Bulb: where matrix is housed
c. Matrix: growth zone
d. Goose Bumps: when the arrector pili contracts the hair pulls upright, dimpling the skin

1st Degree Burns

ch 4

·         only epidermis damaged

·         area becomes red and swollen

·         not serious, generally heals in 2-3 days

2nd Degree Burns

ch 4

·         injury to epidermis and upper dermis

·         red and painful

·         blisters

·         regrowth can occur

3rd Degree Burns

ch 4

·         destroy entire thickness of skin

·         blanched or blackened

·         nerve endings destroyed so not painful

ABCD Rule

ch 4

ASYMMETRY: 2 sides of pigmented spot or mole don't match
BORDER IRREGULARITY: borders of lesion not smooth but exhibit indentations
COLOR: pigmented spot contains areas of different colors
DIAMETER: spot is larger than 6 millimeters in diameter

Hematopoiesis

ch 5

•formation of blood cells 
•occurs within marrow cavities of certain bones

Rickets

ch 5

•disease in children where bones fault to calcify
•bones soften and definite bowing a of weight-bearing bones of legs occurs
•from lack of calcium or vitamin D

When blood calcium levels are...

ch 5

Too low: 

  parathyroid glands are stimulated to release parathyroid hormone (PTH) into blood activating osteoclasts, which are giant bone destroying cells
Too high:
• calcium is deposited in bone matrix as hard calcium salts

Most important minerals stored in bones:

ch 5

1.) calcium
2.) phosphorous

Yellow marrow

ch 5

• cavity of shaft of a bone in adults that stores adipose (fat) tissue

Red marrow

ch 5

• same area but in infants forms blood cells
• confined to cavities of sponge bone or flat bones and epiphyses of some long bones in adults

red marrow

ch 5

Long bone

ch 5

Diaphysis

•Long part/shaft of bone
•hollow chamber of compact bone

Epiphysis

•proximal and distal ends of bone

Spongy bone

•made of trabeculae
•extra strong in epiphysis only

Compact bone

•smooth exterior of entire bone
•has haversion canals

Epiphyseal plate

•growth zone for length

Periosteum

•connective tissue 
•like shrink wrap on bone
•smooth layer allows for tendons/ligaments to attach

Femur

ch 5

·         thigh bone

·         only bone in thigh

·         heaviest and strongest bone of body

·         ball head fits into socket coxal bone

Carpals

ch 5

·         8 bones arranged in 2 irregular rows of 4 bones each

·         Form part of the hand, which is the wrist (Carpus)

Bone Segments of Axial Skeleton

ch 5

·         Skull

·         Bony thorax

·         Vertebral column

Parts of Vertebral Column

ch 5

a. cervical vertebrae: c1-c7;  neck region of spine;  atlas, axis;  “typical vertebrae”: c3-c7

·         Atlas: no body;  yes bone

·         Axis: pivot for atlas; no bone

b. thoracic vertebrae: t1-t12, all typical;  body is somewhat heart-shaped;  2 costal facets

c. lumbar vertebrae: L1-L7; block-like bodies, big like a hatchet

d. sacrum: formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae; posterior wall of pelvis

e. coccyx: formed by fusion of 3 to 5 tiny vertebrae; “tailbone”

4 major features of sarcomere

ch 6

1. arranged into highly ordered repeating units of actin and mysoin filaments
2. basic structural and functional units of skeletal muscle
3. smallest portion of skeletal muscle capable of contracting
4. extend from z disk to z disk

describe what happens to the following parts of sarcomere DURING contraction

ch 6

1. A band: remains the same
2. I band: shortens
3. H zone: disappears
4. Z disc: comes closer to other z disk

3 functions of nervous system

ch 7

1. monitor changes

• millions of sensory receptors occuring both inside & outside body
• changes called stimuli
• sensory input: gathered info of stimuli

3. effects a response

• it then effects a response by activating muscles or glands via moter output

association/interneuron

ch 7

• connect motor and sensory neurons and neural pathways

axon

ch 7

• neuron processes that carries impulses away from nerve cell body
• efferent process
• conducting portion of a nerve cell

dendrite

ch 7

• neuron processes that convey incoming messages toward cell body

motor neuron

ch 7

• (efferent) neurons carrying imoulses from CNS to viscera &/or muscles and glands

myelin sheath

ch 7

• when wrapping (myelinating) is done, it encloses an axon

neurotransmitter

ch 7

• chemical released by neurons that may, upon binding to receptors of neurons or effector cells, stimulate or inhibit them

nodes of ranvier

ch 7

• the gaps in a cell due to myelin sheaths forming by individual schwann cells

sensory neuron

ch 7

• (afferent) cell bodies always found in ganglion cells outside CNS (receptors, cutaneous receptors, proprioceptors)

polarization

1. resting membrane potential

ch 7

• fewer + ions on inner face of neuron's plasma membrane than outside surface
• major + inside is potassium and outside is sodium
• as long as inside is more - than outside, neuron will stay INACTIVE

polarization

2. depolarization

ch 7

• sodium channels open and b/c sodium content is higher outside, then it will diffuse quickly into neuron
• inside is now MORE postive than outside

polarization

3. repolarization (sodium-potassium pump)

ch 7

• outflow of + ions from cell restores electrical conditions at membrane to polarized/resting state
• after initial concentrations of sodium and potassium ions outside of neuron are restored by activation of the sodium potassium pump

synapse

ch 7

• neurotransmitters must leave the pre-synaptic cleft, cross the synapatic cleft and enter the post-synaptic cleft
• stimuli must be stopped

reflex arc: 5 parts

1. sensory neuron

ch 7

• nerve sends info to CNS (afferent)

• receives stimulus

• interprets info

• (efferent) sends command to effector organ

• carries out the command
• takes action

autonomic nervous system

ch 7

• regulates events that are automatic
• sympathetic and parasympathetic which typically bring about opposite effects (what one stimulates the other inhibits)

sympathetic nervous system

ch 7

• part of the autonomic nervous system
• "fight or flight"

5 major processes controlled by hormones (endocrine system)

ch 9

1. reproduction
2. growth & development
3. mobilizing body defenses against stressors
4. maintaining electrolyte/water/nutrient balance of blood
5. regulating cellular metabolism & energy balance

what is the importance of hormones?

ch 9

how are hormones related to target tissue?

ch 9

• a given hormone affects only certain tissue cells or organs
• in order for a target cell to respond to a hormone, specific protein receptors must be present on its plasma membrane or in its interior to which that hormone can attach

why is the pituitary gland no longer called the "master gland?"

ch 9

• b/c release of each of its hormones is controlled by releasing & inhibitng hormones produced by hypothalamus

1. hormone
2. target tissue
3. response

ch 9

1. LH/FSH
2. hypothalamic hormones/same
3. stimulaties ovaries and testes/stimulates production of ova and sperm

thyroid ch 9

1. hormone
2. target tissue
3. response

1. thyroid hormone
2. thyroxine in blood; hypothalamic hormones
3. stimulates thyroid gland

parathyroid ch 9

1. hormone
2. target tissue
3. response

1. parathyroid hormone
2. calcium level in blood
3. raises blood calcium level

pancreas ch 9

1.  hormone
2. target tissue
3. response

1. glucagon
2. glucose level in blood
3. reduces blood glucose

what are the three causes of diabetes mellitus?

ch 9

1. too little insulin
2. shortage of insulin receptors on target cells
3. defective receptors that don't respond to insulin

6 Functions of Blood

ch 10/11

1. osmotic pressure
2. clotting
3. protection from pathogens
4. regulation of pH
5. transport of gasses, waste, and nutrients
6. maintainence of body temp

Red Blood Cells

 ch 10/11

• Scientific name: Erythrocytes
• Primary function: ferry O₂ in blood to all cells of body
• Secondary Function: ferry C in blood to all cells of body
• Summary: transports respiratory gasses
• Protein Carried: Hemoglobin (iron-bearing transports bulk of  O₂ in blood
• primarily transports oxygen, but binds to carbon dioxide

White Blood Cells

ch 10/11

• Scientific Name: leukocytes
• form protective, movable army that helps defend body against damage by bacteria, virusses, parasites and tumor cells
• also can locate areas of tissue damage and infection in body by resoinding to certain chemicals that diffuse from damaged cells
• When WBc's mobilize: body speeds up their production and as many as twice normal # of WBC's may appear in blood w/n a few hrs
• Indicate: that a bacterial or viral infection is stewing in the body

Antigen

ch 10/11

• substance that body recognizes as foreign
• stimulates immune system to release antibodies or use othe means to mount defense against it

Antibody

ch 10/11

• present in plasma that attach to RBC's bearing surface antigens different from those on patient's RBC's
• binding of antibodies causes RBC's to clump-->Agglutition

Agglutition

ch 10/11

• leads to clogging of small blood vessels throughout body

Pulmonary Circulation

ch 10/11

• sup/inf vena cava>pulmonary trunk>R/L pulmonary arteries>4 pulmonary veins
• only function is to carry blood to lungs for gas exchange and then return it to the heart

Flow of Blood Through the Heart

ch 10/11

Differnces b/w Arteries and Veins

ch 10/11

Direction of blood flow: Veins (to heart); Arteries (away from heart)

Type of blood most often carried: Veins (deoxygenated); Arteries (oxygenated)

Vessel wall thickness: Veins (thin); Arteries (thick)

Presence of Valves: Veins (yes); Arteries (no)

Blood Flow of Heart Diagram

ch 10/11

1. what are the 2 major functions of hydrochloric acid (hcl)?
2. what organ does this occur in?
3. what is the source of its release

ch 10/11

1. kills bacteria; destroys pathogens
2. stomach
3. parietal cells

carbohydrates (starch) 

1. name the 2 enzymes that chemically digest carbs
2. name the 2 locations where each of these digestions occurs

ch 10/11

1. salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase
2. mouth and small intestine

lipids

ch 10/11

1. what does "emulsifies fat" mean?: breaks down lrg globules of fat into tiny droplets
2. name substance that emulsifies fat: bile
3. where is it produced/secreted: liver
4. where is it stored: gallbladder
5. name enzyme that continues fat digestion by breaking fat molecules down into fatty acids: lipases
6. where is this enzyme secreted: small intestine

proteins

ch 10/11

1. enzyme that digests proteins: pepsin
2. another name for pepsin: protease
3. where is it secreted: gastric glands
4. what substance helps this enzyme digest proteins: HCL

nucleic acids

ch 10/11

1. enzyme that chemically digests nucleic acids: nuclease
2. where is this enzyme secreted: pancreas

pancreas

ch 10/11

1. releases digestive enzymes into sm intestine
2. provides most enyzmes secreted into upper end of sm intestin
3. secretes neclease to digest nucleic acids
4. secretes amyulase to digest carbs

liver

ch 10/11

1. produces bile which emulsifies fat
2. absorbs nutrients
3. removes sugar from blood
4. synthesis blood protein

the kidneys play a major role in maintaing homeostasis by...

ch 10/11

• removing urea, water and other wastes from blood

ammonia is converted to urea because...

ch 10/11

• urea is less toxic to the body