1. O horizon - leaf litter/detritus

2. A horizon - topsoil

3. B Horizon - subsoil

4. C Horizon - parent material 

Loamy: ideal for plants; = parts clay, silt and sand

Sandy: high sand proportion

Clayey: high clay proportion

Soil Degradation

Erosion, Salinization, Waterlogging, Desertification, Compaction and Loss of nutrients

Erosion: deplacement of upper layer of soil

Salinization: salt in the soil

Waterlogging: too much water

Desertification: dry land used to grow crops, removes natural vegetation

Compaction: soil is compacted

Loss Of Nutrients: loss of soil nutrients 

Soil Conservation 

Terracing

Contour/Strip

Cover Crops

No-Till/Low-Till

Windbreakers

terracing: stop land into flat areas

contour/strip: planting across a slope, following elevation and contour lines

cover crops: crop to manage soil erosion, water, weeds and pests

no-till/low-till: don't till the soil

windbreakers: row of trees/shrubs that help stop soil erosion

Improve Soil Fertility

Organic Fertilizer

Compost

Organic Fertilizer: animal or vegetable matter

Compost: decomposed organic matter

Irrigate Less

Drip Irrigation

Under Soil

Drip Irrigation:  water drips slowly to the roots

Under Soil: sub-soil, immediately under the surface

Solid Waste

Industrial

Municipal

Industrial: manufacturing

Municipal: garbage

Solid Waste Disposal

Open Dump

Landfill

Incineration

open dump: not organized

Landfill: organized, better for the environment

Incineration: burning

Solid Waste Management 

Prevention

Reduction

Reuse

Recycle 

Composting

Cradle-to-Grave manufacturing

prevention: make it not occur

reduction: lessen

reuse: use again, more then 1 use

recycle: make into something new

composting: organic matter (decomposed) used a fertilizer

Cradle-to-grave manufacturing: "life-cycle"

Electronic Waste

Reduction

Disposal

reduction: use less

disposal: how to get rid of it safely

sources: mining, agriculture, industrial and domestic activities 

Hazardous Waste Classifications

Poisonous

Reactive

Corrosive

Flammable

Radioactive

Poisonous: substance capable of causing death or illness

Reactive: explosive

Corrosive: rust or decompose

Flammable: catch on fire

Radioactive: emission of ionizing radiation or particles 

Hazardous waste disposal

export

treatment

incineration

dilution

deep well injection

secure landfill

brownfields

export: to transport

treatment: makes it less hazardous

incineration: burning

dilution: water down

deep well injection: fluid deep underground to rock formations

secure landfill: engineered depression in the ground

brownfields: land used for industrial purposes

US Legislation:  Hazardous Waste

RCRA

Superfund (CERCLA)

Toxic Release Inventory 

RCRA: 1974, USA law: disposal of solid and hazardous waste

Superfund (CERLA): 1980, USA law: clean up contaminated sites

Toxic Release Inventory (TRI): 1984, USA information database

International Legislation: Hazardous Waste

Basel Convention

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Basel Convention: 1992, international treaty

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: international environmental treaty

Types of Toxins

Carcinogens

Mutagens

Teratogens

Immune Disorders

Endocrine Disorders

Neurotoxins

carcinogens: cause cancer

mutagens: mutants DNA --> genetic diseases

teratogens: birth defects, abnormal development

immune disorders: arising from an abnormal immune response to a normal body part.

endocrine disorders: diseases related to the endocrine glands of the body

neurotoxins: brain and nerve damage 

Toxicity 

Solubility 

Synergism

Persistence

Dose: Sensitivity and LD50

Exposure: Acute VS Chronic

solubility: ability to dissolve

synergism: interaction of organisms = greater effect then the sum of the 2 organism

persistence: continued existence

sensitivity: degree to which one can sense a stimulus

LD50: material given all at once, causes death to 50% of group of test animals

Acute VS Chronic: single VS longterm

Toxins in organisms

Bioaccumulation

Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation: becomes concentrated inside bodies or living things

Biomagnification: concentration of toxins from eating plants and animals with toxins 

Industrial Agriculture

Monoculture

Energy

Irrigation

Chemical Fertilizers

Pesticides

Cash Crops

Soil Impacts

Monoculture: 1 crop in a field

Energy: fossil fuels and biofuels

Irrigation: 2/3 of all water use

Chemical Fertilizers: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

Pesticides: natural and synthetic

Cash Crops: crop produced for its commercial use

Soil Impacts: erosion

Traditional Agriculture

Polyculture

Intensive

Natural Fertilizers

Natural Pest Predators

Polyculture: multiple crops in the same place

Intensive: low fallow ratio, high inputs

Natural Fertilizers: from animal or vegetable matter

Natural pest predators: predation, parasitism and herbivory

Organic Farming

Benefits

Concerns

Food Labeling

Benefits: no synthetic chemicals or unnecessary antibiotics

Concerns: difficult to start, prices go up

Food labeling: USDA organic

Animal Products- Meat, Dairy, Eggs

Livestock: Feedlots and Grazing

Seafood: aquaculture and aquaponics 

Feedlots: cramped 

Grazing: open

Aquaculture: farming aquatic organisms

Aquaponics: combines aquaculture with hydroponics 

Types of Forests

Coniferous

Temperate mixed

Temperate deciduous

Tropical

Old-Growth

Second-Growth

Tree Farm/Plantation

Coniferous: evergreens

Temperate mixed: evergreens and deciduous

Temperate deciduous: loose leaves in the fall

Tropical: rain forest

Old-Growth: never been logged

Second-Growth: Logged once, trees have come back

Tree Farm/Plantation: area of forest land managed to ensure continuous commercial production

Ecosystem Services of Forests

CO2 Sequestration

Habitat/Biodiversity

Soil Stabilization

Water Purification

CO2 Sequestration: removal through plant photosynthesis, of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Habitat/Biodiversity: plant, animal and other species diversity

Soil Stabilization: physical, chemical, biological or combined method of changing a natural soil to meet and engineering purpose

Water Purification: removing chemicals, biological containments, suspended soils and gases form contaminated water

Logging Methods 

Slash and Burn 

Clear-Cutting

Strip Cutting 

Selective Cutting

slash and burn: cut and burn some trees, ash goes into the soil, grows crops

clear-cutting: cut down and area

strip-cutting: cut strips down, leave strips

Selective cutting: takes a few trees

Logging Issues

Deforestation

Fragmentation

Replacement 

Soil Erosion and Sedimentation

Deforestation: losing forest 30,000mi2 per year

Fragmentation: process of breaking down into small or separate parts

Replacement: roads, fields, buildings

Soil Erosion and Sedimentation: top layer of soil are blown or washed away from wind or water

US forest service

US Department of Agriculture 

Sustainable Management 

Forest Fires

Demand for wood and pulp

Paper use and alternatives

Recycling

Debt-for-nature swap

Parks and Reserves

Buffer Zones

Ecotourism 

Forest Fires: shrubs make fires worse

Demand for wood and pulp: pulp gets bleached

Paper use and alternatives: use less paper

Recycling: the process of converting waste into reusable materials

Debt-for-nature swap: forgive loans with land

Parks and Reserves: nature preserves

Buffer Zones: sort of protected land by park border

Ecotourism: build resorts, tours through forests, too many people

Groundwater

Replenishment

Withdrawal: subsidence, salt-water intrusion and desalination

replenishment: restoring a stock or supply to a former level or condition

subsidence: gradual caving in or sinking of an area of land

Salt-water intrusion: sucking ocean water into a fresh water aquafer

desalination: remove salt from ocean water

Dams and Diversions

Dams:

benefits and concerns

Diversions: canals and

pipelines and bottled water

dam benefits: flood protection, water storage, hydroelectric power, lake for recreation

dam concerns: sedimentation, filling reservoirs, evaporation, salinity and pollutant concentration, blocks fish, loss of free flowing river for recreation

Canals: move water from reservoirs behind dams to other places

Pipelines: long typically underground pipe

Bottled Water: watersheds, aquifers, less regulated then tap 

Water Uses

Agricultural

Industrial

Municipal 

Agricultural: 70%, irrigation efficiency, evaporation

Industrial: 24%, largest use is cooling systems in power plants

Municipal: 6%, small percent that still needs to be conserved

Reducing Consumption 

Cost

Efficiency: irrigation methods, manufacturing processes and residential fixtures 

Policies and Regulation: city-level restrictions, gray-water use

Cost: the price of something

Irrigation methods: drip VS spray, reclaimed treated sewer water subsidies for crops the require irrigation

Manufacturing processes: raw materials are transformed into products

Residential fixtures: homes

City-level restrictions: restrictions on a city

Gray-water use: recycling of "waste" water 

Water Pollution

Point

Non-point: storm drains and run-off

Point: end of pipe, easy to monitor and regulate

Storm Drains: sewer built to carry away excess water during heavy rain

Run-off: agriculture and urban, difficult to monitor and regulate

Types of Water Pollution

sediment

nutrients

oxygen-depleting waste

organic

inorganic

heavy metals

pathogens

thermal

sediment: erosion adds silt to rivers and lakes. silt carries pollutants and nutrients

nutrients: excess nitrates and phosphates more algae to grow, leading to lack of 02, fish kills

oxygen-depleting waste: animal waste and plant debris decomposition process uses up oxygen

organic: highly toxic in low doses

inorganic: bioaccumulation and biomagnification

heavy metals: lead, arsenic and mercury

pathogens: untreated sewage leads to E.coli and other bacteria from feedlot run-off

thermal: release of warm water from cooling systems

Oxygen Sag Curve (DO and BOD)

Decomposition Zone

Septic Zone

Recovery Zone

Clean Zone

Decomposition Zone: decomposition breaks down pollution, oxygen decreases

Septic Zone: dissolved oxygen levels are very low, few species can survive

Recovery zone: waste concentrations decrease. DO goes up BOD goes down

Clean zone: DO goes up, BOD goes down, normal biodiversity levels present

Eutrophication

Oligotrophic 

Mesotrophic

Eutrophic

oligotrophic: less nutrients

mesotrophic: in between 

eutrophic: warmer, shallower, more nutrients, different kinds of fish

Algal Blooms

Cyanobacteria

Dead Zones

Red Tides

cyanobacteria:  only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen

dead zones: too many nutrients, algae uses oxygen

red tides: algae bloom caused by dinoflagellates, red or brown color 

Open and Deep Ocean Pollution

Dumping

Currents

Oil spills and leaks

Plastics

dumping: dispose

currents: moving in a definite direction

oil spills and leaks: release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment

plastics: synthetic material made from organic polymers

Ground Water

infiltration

injection

underground tanks

wells

infiltration: permeation of a liquid into something by filtration

injection: enter or place by injecting

underground tanks: storage tank not including underground piping

wells: shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water