Term
| What are the 2 parts of the pituitary gland? |
|
Definition
| 1. the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) and the 2. anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) |
|
|
Term
| What is the infundibulum? |
|
Definition
| It is located inferior to the hypothalamus and is the connection to the pituitary (like a stalk of tissue). |
|
|
Term
| Hyposecretion of Growth Hormone causes what type of dwarfism? |
|
Definition
| pituitary dwarfism (achondroplastic dwarfism is caused by a genetic defect in growth plate development which causes a normal size trunk and disproportionate limbs, hands and feet) |
|
|
Term
| Pituitary dwarfism causes what percentage of dwarfism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of dwarfism causes short limbs as well as small hands and feet? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___________ dwarfism can be treated with Growth Hormones if caught early. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Achondroplastic dwarfism is a genetic defect that affects what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| This hormone stimulates the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). |
|
Definition
| Tyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH)/Thyrotropin |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)? |
|
Definition
| TRH (thyroid releasing hormone from the hypothalamus) |
|
|
Term
| What affect would low levels of TRH have on thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Increased levels of thyroxine and triiodothyronine is a consequence of what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Decreased levels of thyroxine and triiodothyronine can be attributed to what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)? |
|
Definition
| To stimulate the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| causes the release of T4 (thyroxine, the most abundant form) and T3 (triiodothyronine, the less prominent, but more physiologically active form) |
|
|
Term
| What are the effects of hyposecretion of the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) |
|
Definition
| Decrease in sperm production (males), Amenorrhea (females) and Low estrogen levels (females). |
|
|
Term
| What is Grave's disease, and what is it caused by? |
|
Definition
| Autoantibodies which are produced and mimic TSH. This mimicing TSH autoantibody binds to the thyroid receptors and causes hypersecretion of thyroid hormone. |
|
|
Term
| What does growth hormone inhibit |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| GH increases lipolysis… what is lipolysis? |
|
Definition
| breakdown of fats for energy |
|
|
Term
| GH increases production of somatomedins…what does this do? |
|
Definition
| stimulates growth in cartilage and bone and increases protein synthesis in skeletal muscles |
|
|
Term
| Where is the Parathyroid gland located and how many are there? |
|
Definition
| there are 4 small glands on the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland |
|
|
Term
| What hormone does the parathyroid gland release? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of parathyroid hormone? |
|
Definition
| 1. Raises blood calcium levels and 2. Decreases blood phosphate levels |
|
|
Term
| How does parathyroid hormone increase blood caclcium? |
|
Definition
| It stimulates release of calcium from bones (which indirectly increases the number and activity of osteoclasts). It also stimulates reabsorption of calcium from the kidneys and stimulates the final conversion of Vit. D in the Kidneys (calcidiol into calcitriol which aids in calcium absorption) |
|
|
Term
| How does parathyroid hormone decrease blood phosphate? |
|
Definition
| It stimulates secretion of phosphate by the kidneys, however, it also stimulates release of phosphate from the bones and stimulates absorption of phosphate in the gut |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of Parathyroid hormone (PTH)? |
|
Definition
| 1. low blood calcium levels and 2. High blood phosphate levels |
|
|
Term
| What inhibits the release of Parathyroid hormone (PTH)? |
|
Definition
| 1. high blood calcium levels 2. Low blood phosphate levels |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 causes of hypersecretion of Parathyroid hormone (PTH)? |
|
Definition
| 1. primary hyperparathyroidism (adenomas are responsible for approximately 90%; idiopathic (unknown cause) responsible for the other 10%) 2. Secondary hyperparathyroidism (caused by conditions that reduce blood calcium; inadequate dietary intake of calcium and inadequate levels of vitamin D) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 main symptoms of hypersecretion of Parathyroid hormone (PTH)? |
|
Definition
| 1. osteoporosis (loss of calcium from bone) 2. hypercalcemia 3. muscle weakness 4. lethargy 5. increased heart contractility |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 causes of hyposecretion of Parathyroid hormone (PTH)? |
|
Definition
| 1. Accidental removal during thyroidectomy (thyroid gland removal) 2. Autoimmune, idiopathic, congenital or tumor |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 symptoms of hyposecretion of Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
|
Definition
| 1. hypocalcemia 2. nerve discharge and siezures 3. muscle spasms |
|
|
Term
| Where are the adrenal glands found? |
|
Definition
| Otherwise known as the suprarenal (upon the kidneys) they sit atop the kidneys and are embedded in fat that encloses the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| What are the two parts of the adrenal glands? |
|
Definition
| 1. adrenal medulla 2. Adrenal cortex |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the adrenal medulla and where is it located? |
|
Definition
| The adrenal medulla is the central part of the adrenal gland that is considered to be part of the sympathetic nervous system and is a reinforced sympathetic response. It releases two hormones, epinephrine (aka adrenaline that is 80% of its secretion product) and norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline which is 20% of its secretion product) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 8 main functions of epinephrine and norepinephrine? |
|
Definition
| 1. increase metabolic rate (especially skeletal and cardiac muscle) 2. increased heart rate 3. increased blood pressure 4. Glycogenolysis in the liver (releases glucose into the bloodstream) 5. Glycogenolysis in the muscle cells (glucose is metabolized and used for energy) 6. Lipolysis in Adipocytes (fatty acids released into the bloodstream) 7. Bronchodilation 8. Shunts blood from the internal organs and skin to the essential organs (brain, muscle and heart) |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine? |
|
Definition
| sympathetic nervous system (which is why it is considered a part of the sympathetic nervous system) via hypothalamic stimulation from 1. stress 2. physical activity 3. low blood glucose 4. low blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| What inhibits the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine? |
|
Definition
| There is no inhibitory input; low basal levels and it is released on demand |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 hypersecretion effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine? |
|
Definition
| 1. Hypertension 2. tachycardia 3. hyperglycemia 4. nervousness 5. Excessive sweating |
|
|
Term
| What are the hyposecretion effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine? |
|
Definition
| None (low normal basal levels) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 layers of the adrenal (suprarenal) gland? |
|
Definition
| From outer to inner 1. zona glomerulosa 2. zona fasciculata and 3. zona reticularis |
|
|
Term
| What hormones are released by the zona glomerulosa? |
|
Definition
| Minaralocorticoids like aldosterone (the main one) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 main functions of aldosterone? |
|
Definition
| 1. Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb sodium (water follows osmotically which increases blood volume and consequently pressure) 2. stimulates kidneys to secrete potassium and 3. stimulates secretion of hydrogen |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of Follicle Stimulating Hormone? |
|
Definition
| 1.Stimulates sperm production (males) 2.Stimulates estrogen production(females) 3.Helps regulate the menstrual(females) |
|
|
Term
| What are the symptoms of hypersecretion of thyroid hormone? |
|
Definition
| high body temperature, heat intolerance, weight loss, increased heart rate, hypertension, hyperexcitable due to central nervous system stimulation, diarrhea due to stimulation of the digestive tract, exophthalmos, and goiter |
|
|
Term
| What are the Hypersecretion effects of prolactin in females? |
|
Definition
| 1. lack of menstrual cycle 2. spontaneous milk production 3. decreased libido due to low testosterone |
|
|
Term
| What are the Hypersecretion effects of prolactin in males? |
|
Definition
| increased prolactin (hypersecretion of) can cause erectile disfunction, decreased sperm production, breast development in males (called gynecomastia) and decreased libido due to low testosterone |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of aldosterone? |
|
Definition
| Angiotensin II directly stimulates release of aldosterone. This is all part of the renin /angiotensin /aldosterone pathway. Renin will convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is convereted to angiotensin II which then stimulates release of aldosterone. |
|
|
Term
| What causes renin release (and ultimately aldosterone release)? |
|
Definition
| 1. Hyponatremia (low blood sodium) 2. Decreased blood volume / blood pressure 3. Sympathetic stimulation 4. hyperkalemia (high blood potassium) |
|
|
Term
| What inhibits aldosterone release? |
|
Definition
| 1. hypernatremia 2. Increased blood volume / pressure |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of disease from hypersecretion of aldosterone and what causes each? |
|
Definition
| 1. primary aldosteronism - caused by adrenal cortex tumor 2. secondary aldosteronism - caused by increased renin production |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 main symptoms of hypersecretion of aldosterone? |
|
Definition
| 1.hypernatremia 2. hypokalemia 3. alkalosis 4. high blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| What disease is caused by hyposecretion of aldosterone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 main symptoms of hyposecretion of aldosterone (aka addison's disease) |
|
Definition
| 1.hyponatremia 2.hyperkalemia 3.acidosis 4. hypotension |
|
|
Term
| What is the main hormone released by the zona fasciculata? |
|
Definition
| Glucocorticoids (the main one is cortisol) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 main functions of cortisol? |
|
Definition
| 1. STimulates protein catabolism/inhibits protein anabolism, 2. stimulates lipolysis, 3. anti-inflammatory, 4. maintenance of vascular tone, 5. suppresses the immune system and 6. helps the body deal with stress |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of cortisol? |
|
Definition
| ACTH from the anterior pituitary in response to CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) in response to stress or hypoglycemia |
|
|
Term
| What inhibits release of cortisol? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What disease results from hypersecretion of cortisol? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the symptoms of hypersecretion of cortisol (aka cushing's syndrome or disease)? |
|
Definition
| 1. "moon face" and "camel hump" 2. fat gets deposited above the waist 3. edema from loss of protein 4. Increased blood glucose (causing adrenal diabetes) 5. Frequent infection (immune system depressed) 6. Low levels of ACTH (negative feedback from elevated cortisol) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between cushings syndrome and cushings disease? |
|
Definition
| Cushing's syndrome is caused by either an adrenal tumor (where cortisol is made in the zona fasciculata) or by prolonged corticosteroid drug use. Cushing's disease is caused by a pituitary tumor which causes excess ACTH to be released and consequently stimulating the adrenal gland and increasing cortisol release. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two main effects of hyposecretion of cortisol? |
|
Definition
| 1. primary adrenal insufficiency - this is an autoimmune disorder of the adrenal cortex caused by low blood cortisol resulting in high blood ACTH(due to Addison's Disease) 2. Secondary adrenal insuficciency - inadequate secretion of ACTH; this results in only low levels of cortisol and an inability to deal with stress. |
|
|
Term
| Which hormones are released from the zona reticularis? |
|
Definition
| Very small amounts of androgens and estrogens |
|
|
Term
| What are two androgens released in the zona reticularis? |
|
Definition
1. DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone); main androgen secreted, can be converted to testosterone by testes
2. Androstenedione; can be converted to testosterone, effects only significant in females |
|
|
Term
| What are the causes of hypersecretion of androgens (causing adrenogenital syndrome / congenital adrenal hyperplasia)? |
|
Definition
| Caused by a severe lack of cortisol which causes the pituitary to respond with a release of ACTH. This causes tremendous stimulation of the entire cortex and results in a massive release of androgens. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 symptoms of hypersecretion of androgens? |
|
Definition
| 1. Early secondary sex characteristics in males 2. masculizing effects in females 3. short stature (stimulates ossification of growth plate and occurs prematurely) |
|
|
Term
| What is the effect of hypersecretion of androgens before birth? |
|
Definition
| Prior to birth in females, infants's reproductive structures are ambiguous |
|
|
Term
| What is the results of hyposecretion of androgens and estrogens in the zona reticularis? |
|
Definition
| No effects because these are not the primary secretors or androgens and estrogens |
|
|
Term
| What part of the pancreas is responsible for producing endocrine products? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 main hormones secreted by the pancreas and what cells do they come from? |
|
Definition
| 1. insulin from beta cells 2. Glucagon from alpha cells and 3. somatostatin from delta cells |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of insulin? |
|
Definition
| 1. increases cellular uptake of glucose (in muscle, liver and adipose) 2. increases glycogenesis in muscles and liver 3. increases lipogenesis (production of lipid) in adipose tissue 4. increases protein synthesis and is protein sparing |
|
|
Term
| What 4 things stimulate the release of insulin? |
|
Definition
| elevated blood sugar, elevated amino acid levels in the blood, high blood fatty acids and GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide) |
|
|
Term
| What 4 things inhibits insulin release? |
|
Definition
| 1. Somatostatin, 2. low blood glucose, 3. low blood amino acids and 4. low blood fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 functions of glucagon? |
|
Definition
| 1. stimulate gluconeogenesis (conversion of non carbohydrates into glucose) 2. stimulates glycogenolysis 3. stimulates lipolysis |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 things that stimulate glucagon release? |
|
Definition
| 1. low blood glucose 2. increased blood amino acids (protects from hypoglycemia if all protein meal is eaten 3. sympathetics |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of somatostatin and what cells release it? |
|
Definition
| Released by delta islets of Langerhan cells and inhibits insulin and glucagon (aids in feedback regulation) |
|
|
Term
| What is type 1 diabetes mellitus and what causes this? |
|
Definition
| occurs in 5% of the cases and is the insulin-dependent diabetes. Beta cells do not exist or are not working properly; this is an autoimmune disiese |
|
|
Term
| What is type 2 diabetes mellitus and what causes this? |
|
Definition
| Formerly known as adult onset; not atypical for teenagers to contract disease now. Poor lifestyle is usually, but not always to blame. Insuline resistance is the cause (in other words, insulin production is fine, but cells receptors not working. Eventually insulin production will stop as well) |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of oxytocin in females? |
|
Definition
| Stimulate milk ejection from lactating breast and also Stimulate uterine contraction during childbirth. |
|
|
Term
| Where is oxytocin released from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a function of oxytocin in males? |
|
Definition
| facilitate sperm transport |
|
|
Term
| Oxytocin may have an effect on male sexual behavior (T/F)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What substances from outside the body (exogenously) can inhibit ADH/Vasopressin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What 2 physiological conditions inhibit ADH/Vasopressin? |
|
Definition
| A decrease in plasma osmolarity/osmolality and/or an increase in blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| What hormone is released due to the dilation of the cervix? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What bodily reactions during childbirth cause the release of oxytocin? |
|
Definition
| Dilation of cervix,distension of uterus |
|
|
Term
| What bodily reactions besides those during childbirth cause the release of oxytocin? |
|
Definition
| suckling of breasts and sexual intercourse |
|
|
Term
| What gland releases oxtocin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What inhibits the release of oxytocin? |
|
Definition
| none are known but alcohol does inhibit |
|
|
Term
| what are the hypersecretion effects of oxytocin release? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the hyposection effects of oxytocin release? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The lack of milk production in females during the lactation period is a hyposecretion effect of what hormone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the effect of hyposecretion of Prolactin in men? In women? |
|
Definition
| No known effect in men, lack of milk production during lacation for women |
|
|
Term
| What is the effect of a pituitary tumor (with respect to TSH levels)? |
|
Definition
| A pituitary tumor would cause an increase in TSH |
|
|
Term
| What is the funtion of luteinizing hormone? |
|
Definition
| stimulates testosterone production, and helps regulate the menstrual cycle |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone? |
|
Definition
| GnRH and low blood testosterone levels |
|
|
Term
| What inhibites the release of luteinizing hormone? |
|
Definition
| Low GnRH and high blood testosterone |
|
|
Term
| What are the hypersecretion effects of luteinizing hormone? |
|
Definition
| High blood testosterone, Amenorrhea |
|
|
Term
| What are the hyposecretion effects of luteinizing hormone? |
|
Definition
| Low testosterone levels and amenorrhea |
|
|
Term
| What are two ways the endocrine system allows for communication between cells? |
|
Definition
| Affect the activity of their target cells, released directly into surrounding intersitial fluid |
|
|
Term
| What are the two major classes of hormones? |
|
Definition
| Protein hormones and Lipid hormones. |
|
|
Term
| How are protein hormones transported in the body? |
|
Definition
| Most are carried freely within the blood. |
|
|
Term
| How are lipid hormones transported in the body? |
|
Definition
| These need to be transported in the blood via plasma proteins. |
|
|
Term
| What are prostaglandins derived from? |
|
Definition
| Derived from lipids (synthesized by tissues in the body) |
|
|
Term
| What enzymes are needed for the synthesis of prostaglandins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two signaling methods prostaglandins use? |
|
Definition
| Autocrine (acts on the same cell secreting it) and Paracrine (acts on a cell close by) Must use these due to their short half life. |
|
|
Term
| What are three clinical uses of prostaglandins? |
|
Definition
| decrease blood pressure, dilate airways, inhibit acid secretion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is negative feedback? |
|
Definition
| Maintains homeostasis. Response of a regulator to counteract and inappropriate change. |
|
|
Term
| What is postive feedback? |
|
Definition
| Does not maintain homeostatsis. Response of a regulator contributes to the change that occurs. |
|
|
Term
| What is non-hormonal regulation? |
|
Definition
| Change in the concentration of a substance, causes a gland or specialized tissue to respond, gland responds via the relesae of hormones. (ie. an increase in blood glucose causes the pancreas to respond and release insulin) |
|
|
Term
| Describe neural regulation. |
|
Definition
| Stimulate or inhibit release of hormone. (ie. neural control of the adrenal gland causes release of NE and Epi) |
|
|
Term
| Describe hormonal regulation. |
|
Definition
| A gland or endocrine structure influences another gland or endocrine structure. (ie the hypothalamus influences the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland) |
|
|
Term
| Describe chronic secretion. |
|
Definition
| Days or weeks, maintenence of a relatively constant concentration of circulating hormone. |
|
|
Term
| Describe acute secretion. |
|
Definition
| Minutes to hours, rapid, short-lived increase in circulating hormone in response to a stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| Describe cyclic secretion. |
|
Definition
| Days, increase and decrease in circulating hormones at a relatively constant time |
|
|
Term
| Lipid hormones diffuse through ______ of capillaries. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Protein hormones diffuse through ______ of capillaries. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Specialized structures on or in the target cells that bind hormones. |
|
|
Term
| What is the receptor/active site? |
|
Definition
| Where a specific hormone binds to a specific receptor. |
|
|
Term
| What is desensitization/resistance? |
|
Definition
| Occurs with prolonged and constant stimulation of a receptor, causes conformational change or downregulation of the receptor. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Increase in the sensitivity of a cell to a hormone, Increase in the number of receptors. |
|
|
Term
| If a hormone can upregulate the receptor of another hormone it is said to have what effect? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The effect of two hormones together on a target cell is greater than the additive effect of the two hormones seperately on the same cell. |
|
|
Term
| What are two locations of receptors on a cell? |
|
Definition
| Membrane bound and intracellular. |
|
|
Term
| What type of receptor requires a second messenger cascade? |
|
Definition
| Membrane bound receptors which are bound by protein hormones. |
|
|
Term
| How do intracellular receptors work? |
|
Definition
| Bound by lipid hormones (diffuse through plasma membrane), contained within the nucleus or cytoplasm, receptor interacts with enzymes or DNA |
|
|
Term
| What are the three protein hormone modes of action? |
|
Definition
| G-proteins, guanylate cyclase, membrane bound receptors with enzymatic activity |
|
|
Term
| G protein receptors activate what three second messenger cascades? |
|
Definition
| Calcium channels, adenylate cyclase, phospholipase C. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the calcium channel second messenger cascade. |
|
Definition
| Hormone binds receptor, G protein binds the receptor, ion channels or enzymes are activated leading to an increase in intracellular Ca |
|
|
Term
| Describe the adenylate cyclase second messenger cascade. |
|
Definition
| Hormone binds receptor, G protein binds the receptor, adenylate cyclase is released resulting in ATP to be converted into cAMP |
|
|
Term
| Describe the phospholipase C second messenger cascade. |
|
Definition
| Hormone binds receptor, G protein binds receptor, phospholipase C converts PIP2 into IP3 and DAG. |
|
|
Term
| What is the cause of IP3 release as a second messenger? |
|
Definition
| Causes an increase in intracellular calcium. |
|
|
Term
| What is the cause of DAG release as a second messenger? |
|
Definition
| Activates other enzymes in the cell and aids in prostaglandin production. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the guanylate cyclase second messenger cascade. |
|
Definition
| Hormone binds receptor, causes a conformation change of the receptor, activates guanylate cyclase which converts GTP into cGMP |
|
|
Term
| Describe the membrane bound receptors with enzymatic activity cascade pathway. |
|
Definition
| Hormone binds receptor, receptor undergoes conformational change, activates receptor on inner membrane which activates enzymes within the cell |
|
|
Term
| What is the purpose of a second messenger? |
|
Definition
| Rapid response, amplifies the signal of the hormone |
|
|
Term
| Describe lipid hormone mode of action. |
|
Definition
| hormone dissociates from carrier, diffuses thru PM and nuclear membrane, binds with receptor in nucleus, binds DNA, causes transcription of some gene, new protein produced |
|
|
Term
| What 3 things stimulate Follicle Stimulating Hormones (FSH)? |
|
Definition
| 1.GnRH 2.Low blood estrogens levels(females) 3.Low blood testosterone levels(males) |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of the thyroid gland? |
|
Definition
| 1. TSH/Thyrotropin (also causes thyroid to enlarge) 2.Increased levels of iodine 3.Cold & Stress (increase TRH) |
|
|
Term
| What are the two hormones that are released from the Thyroid gland? |
|
Definition
| Thyroxine(T4), and Triiodothyronine(T3) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A sudden release of T3 and T4 |
|
|
Term
| What causes thyroid storm? |
|
Definition
| Stress, infections, or idiopathic (fancy term for my doctor has no clue) |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of Growth Hormone (GHIH)? |
|
Definition
| Low blood glucose (hypoglycemia), increased blood amino acids (especially arginine), stress, deep sleep, and exercise. |
|
|
Term
| What percent of Dwarfs are achondroplastic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 8 symptoms of secondary hypothyroidism? |
|
Definition
| 1. low body temperature 2. Cold intolerance 3. decreased heart rate 4. Hypotension 5. Lethargy due to inhibition of digestive tract 6. Increased plasma cholesterol 7. myxedema (this is a thickening of the soft tissue that causes a non pitting edema) 8. possible goiter if due to lack of iodine |
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|
