L1:

Please explain where the lower and upper critical temperatures and the thermoneutral zone, and explain what each of these terms mean.[image]

Lower critical temperature: the temperature below which birds must begin expending energy to maintain their body temperature (warm themselves).

Upper critical temperature: the temperature above which birds must begin expending energy to maintain their body temperature (cool themselves).

Thermoneutral zone: the range of temperatures in which a bird does not need to expend energy to maintain its normal body temperature.

L1:

Birds are both _____thermic and _____thermic. Fill in the blanks and then define!

a.)    Homeothermic: can maintain a constant body temperature.

b.)    Endothermic: can maintain their body temperature by creating heat through metabolic means.

L1:

Birds have an average body temperature of _____.

-          104 to 111 degrees Fahrenheit.

L1:

What are the advantages to having a high body temperature?

-          Allows birds to maintain a high  activity level at all times (throughout day, year, world).

-          Nerve impulses travel faster.

-          Muscle strength is increased.

-          Physical endurance is greater.

L1:

What are the two paths of heat flux from bird’s bodies?

-          Conduction: heat exchange with a substrate (contact with a cool object).

-          Convection: heat exchange with the air (loss due to warming of surrounding colder air).

L1:

What methods do birds use to alter their body temperature?

a.)    Change location (physically move, into the shade or migration).

b.)    Change position (increasing its functional surface area by spreading wings, for example).

c.)    Manipulate feathers (fluff to trap more air for better insulation, or sleek feathers to cool, also can change color of feathers through molt).

d.)    Alter breathing (slow breathing rate or breath air from beneath feathers to reduce heat loss, panting to offload heat).

e.)    Use extremities (use legs and feet to offload heat when hot, or activate countercurrent circulation to conserve heat in cold).

f.)     Expend energy (use energy to defend their body temperature).

L2:

In what ways is bird respiration more efficient than mammal respiration (there are three major ways)?

a.)    One-way airflow; a continuous stream of air.

b.)    Nearly all the air in the lungs is replaced with each breath, no leftover O2-depleted-air in the bottom.

c.)    Tissue of lungs is much denser in birds than mammals; more O2 per breath is absorbed.

L2:

What are air sacs and how do they benefit birds?

-          They are discrete, organized structures that fill parts of a bird’s body cavity and extend into wing and leg bones.

o   They help create the one way air flow.

o   Help remove excess heat.

o   Function as shock absorbers.

o   Breeding displays.

L2:

What are the differences between mammal and bird circulatory systems and the + and – associated with these differences?

-          In birds the aorta arches to the right, in mammals it arches to the left.

-          Birds have larger hearts than mammals relative to body size.

-          Birds have high cardiac output, heart rates and blood pressure compared to mammals.

-          Advantages: can deliver O2 very rapidly and have their very high metabolism.

-          Disadvantages; bird hearts are prone to high failure rates.

L1:

What are the disadvantages to having a high body temperature?

-          Requires a high metabolic rate and is energetically very expensive.

-          Must eat at a far higher rate.

-          Body temperature is close to that at which proteins denature and die!

L2:

What modifications have birds evolved to their circulatory systems (two)?

-          Countercurrent circulation: the ability to alter blood flow to their legs. In cold climates, incoming blood from extremities is warmed by outbound blood.

-          Shunting blood: diving birds are capable of limiting blood flow to non-essential tissues and shunting to essential organs (brain, etc.).

L3:

What are the basic parts of a bill? 

Mandible (lower jaw)

Maxilla (upper jaw)

Rhamphotheca (keratin sheath enclosing jaw bones)

L3:

What are some forms that bird beaks have taken in modern birds and what are their uses? 

L3:

What methods do birds use to transport their food from their bills to their mouth (three)? 

a.) head-throwing

b.) lingual transport: tongue to move food back into mouth

c.) filter feeding: requires modifications to the bill 

L3:

What  kind of energetically expensive activities require increased food take? 

- breeding

- growth and development

- molt

- migration

-surviving cold weather 

L3:

What are some unusual feeding behaviors? 

- tool use (new caledonian crows).

- caching (shrikes on barbed wire). 

L4:

Name the important parts of the bird digestive system (... IN ORDER!).

L4:

What are the four basic processes that food undergoes when it passes through a bird? 

1.) digestion

2.) maceration

3.) assimilation

4.) excretion 

L4:

What are the two methods of maceration and some examples of birds that use each type? 

a.) external: kingfishers, raptors

b.) internal: everything else 

L4:

Where does digestion begin? 

L4:

What does the length of a bird's small intestine depend on? 

- Long small intestine: eat poor quality food or food that takes time to digest.

- Short small intestine: nutrient rich, easily digestible foods.  

L4:

What form do nitrogenous wastes take in birds? 

L4:

What are the advantages of using uric acid as a waste product? 

- not toxic; birds can store nitrogenous wastes at very high concentrations without using so much water.

- advantageous for egg layers: doesn't need dilution and is insoluble in water.

L4:

What is another method of waste excretion that some sea 

L4:

Food flow is not necessarily one way: explain (there are three elements). 

1.) gulls regurgitate partially digested food to their young as food.

2.) owls will regurgitate indigestable remains of food back up in "pellets".

3.) some birds produce food for their young in parts of their digestive system: crop milk in pigeons (the innermost layers of the crop are regurgitated), stomach oils in petrels. 

L5:

How does bird perception differ from human perception? 

- high visual acuity

- UV vision; polarized light

- echolocation/sonar

- infrasound

- magnetic field detection

- atmospheric pressure detection

- pressure transduction 

L5:

What is the pecten? What is its purpose? 

L5:

In what ways are bird eyes physically different than ours (two basic, shape differences)? 

L5:

What is binocular vision? Do birds have it? 

L5:

What three fundamental aspects of sight differ between humans and birds, and how? 

1.) Acuity (detail at a distance): greater densities of light receptors (cones) than we do, more nerve fibers to carry information to the brain. A wider field of sharp vision than humans. Some have a second temporal fovea, which improves depth perception.

2.) Focusing: can change the curvature of the cornea AND lens (mammals only curve lens), and can focus very quickly.

3.) Color: cones contain oil droplets, a better system than humans.Can see UV light as well. 

L5:

What types of birds have the best hearing? 

L5:

What is abnormal about owl ears from other types of birds?

L5:

Please tell me about birds' sense of smell. What types of birds have especially well developed sense of smell? 

They have reasonable good sense of smell, although their olfactory bulbs are relatively small in relation to the size of their brain.

Vultures have especially good senses; they use smell to find rotting carcasses! Also, seabirds. 

L5:

How is birds sense of taste? 

Mad. shitty.

Just kidding, it's aiight. very few taste buds in comparison to humans. 

L5:

How do filoplumes help with bird's sense of touch? 

L5:

Please tell me about some species of birds' ability to sense pressure transduction. 

L5:

Why can birds detect approaching storms? 

L5:

What feature of the bird ear gives them such good balance? 

L6:

What is the difference between a signal and a display? 

A signal is a behavior that has evolved to influence the behavior of the receiver in a way that benefits the sender.

A display is a ritualized signal that conveys a message. 

L6:

What are the two basic types of communication? 

Passive (plumage patterns, etc.)

or

Active (movements, song, etc.) 

L6:

What four methods do birds use to communicate visually? 

a.) colors (feathers and skin)

b.) positions (or feathers or body, expose skin or other colorful feathers)

c.) posture (change posture to convey information )

d.) movement 

L6:

Give some examples of a situation when birds communicate. 

- territory defense

- mate attraction/courtship

- group cohesion

- warning against predators

- providing information on your status

- information on your location 

L7:

 What are the advantages of sound communication over sight?

- soudn transmits over far distances.

- can be used when sight is difficult: at night.

- can be used when sight is difficult: in dense vegetation.

- a better way of communication without revealing your location. 

L7:

What is the difference between a song and a call? 

song: a longer, repetitious vocalization that is associated with breeding.

calls: shorter, simpler vocalizations that are used in a variety of other contexts. 

L7:

What is the anatomy of the syrinx (it's localization, how it makes noises, etc.)? 

- at the base of the windpipe, where the two main bronchi meet.

- sound if produced by the passage of air over the vibrating internal tympaniform membrane. 

L7:

What are some alternative methods to producing sound used by birds?

- drumming with tools.

- modified feathers.

- drumming woodpeckers. 

L7:

T/F

Birds make sounds that are unique to their species! 

L7:

In what situations is individual recognition by song/call especially well developed? 

L7:

Do high or low sounds travel greater distances? 

Low frequency sounds travel further, AND are less likely to be affected by interference,

THUS

are often used by birds inhabiting dense vegetation or need to communicate over long distances.  

L7:

Do simple sounds (whistles) or complex sounds (buzzes) travel through dense vegetation better? 

L7:

When do complex, busslike songs have an advantage? 

L7:

How important is the size of a bird's repertoire? How can a male change the size of his repertoire? 

- it seems to be something that has been the subject of sexual selection: selection for males with large repertoires.

- males can increase the size of their repertoires by incorporating sounds they hear in their environment using mimicry. Ex. the bird imitating a camera shutter in the video, or mockingbird behind E.O. Smith that imitates a car alarm. 

L7:

What is the difference between the sub-orders of Passeriformes (suboscine and oscine passerines)? 

Suboscine: innate knowledge of songs.

Oscine: must learn songs from parents. 

L7:

How do local variations of song dialects form? 

L8:

What is the basic pattern for bird activity in the average day? 

Very active in the morning.

Drops off around midday.

Picks up again toward evening. 

L8:

 What is the most likely influence on bird's "internal clock"?

L8:

How are we sure that birds' internal clocks are not set on an exactly 24 hour cycle? 

L8:

What two types of information does daylight provide birds with? 

a.) the presence of light can act to stimulate neural receptors.

b.) by coupling the presence/absence of light with a circadian rhythmm, birds can obtain a measure of day length, which is an indicator of the time of year. 

L8:

What gladn is thought to control the biological clock in birds? 

L8:

List some things that day length can influence. 

a.) gonad development and subsequent reproductive physiology, which influences whether birds engage in breeding behaviors like singing)

b.) migratory behavior

c.) molt timing 

L8:

What feature of the brain monitors day length? 

L8:

Please talk about the pathway that begins when the hypothalamus begins detecting day lengths and ends in gonad development.  

1.) the hypothalamus detects day lengths at which it is appropriate to reproduce.

2.) the hypothalamus produces neurohormones.

3.) these neurohormones are carried to the pituitary gland.

4.) the pituitary gland releases hormone that stimulate gonadal development. 

L8:

What is the photorefractory period? 

L8:

What activity has the primacy in determining the sequence of major annual events? 

L8:

What five factors influence when it is best to breed most significantly? 

a.) food availibility (to the parents, or for the offspring)

b.) water (directly to drink, or to grow plants that parents must eat or offspring must eat)

c.) temperature (warm conditions = food availibility, and it is easier to thermoregulate)

d.) habitat availibility

e.) behavior of others (flamingos must be in large numbers) 

L8:

What is the timing of a bird's molt controlled by? 

a.) the need to avoid other major events in the annual cycle.

b.) physiological control: timing of molt is controlled by the interaction of thyroid hormones and gonadal hormones. 

E2

Which of the following are real function fo the air sac system in birds?

a.) air sacs are infrasound detectors.

b.) in some cases, air sacs are used for sexual displays.

c.) air sacs produce by holding buoyant gases.

d.) air saces facilitate two-way airflow.

e.) air sacs act as shock-absorbers.

f.) air sacs help birds lose heat. 

CIRCLE

b.), e.), f.) 

E2

Digestion and food processing in MOST birds are generally characterized by:

a.) slow rates of digestion

b.) external maceration

c.) the ability of the digestive system to change in response to dietary changes

d.) large volumes of food held inside the digestive tract for a long time

e.) efficient extraction of nutrients

f.) tooth loss 

CIRCLE

c.), e.), f.) 

E2

Some shorebirds exhibit a behaviour near their nests in which they run erratically along the ground in front of a predator, dragging a wing, and vocalizing. This behaviour can only be considered a display IF:

a.) it has evolved over time.

b.) if it is stereotyped.

c.) if it is not misleading.

d.) if it has no effect on what the predator does.

e.) conveys some information to the predator.

f.) benefits the shorebird. 

CIRCLE:

a.), b.), e.), f.) 

E2

Which of the following are accurate statements about factors influencing vocalizations in birds?

a.) there is a relationship between air temperatures and when a bird chooses to sing.

b.) syringeal muscle complexity is unrelated to song complexity.

c.) sound carries better above the tops of trees. 

d.) in general, female birds find large repertoires attractive in males.

e.) vocalizations allow birds to communicate while trying to hide their location.

f.) vocalizations are partly or completely controlled by genetics. 

CIRCLE:

a.), c.), d.), e.) f.) 

E2

A variety of activities in birds cycle temporally; which of the following may influence the timing of breeding?

a.) the availibility of particular foods.

b.) food abundance.

c.) melting of snow or ice.

d.) rainfall.

e.) day length.

f.) the presence of other birds. 

CIRCLE

a.), b.), c.), d.), e.), f.) 

E2

E2

Which of the following statements about day length are true?

a.) day length helps birds determine when to grow bigger gonads.

b.) day length helps birds keep track of the time of day.

c.) day length helps birds determine the time of year.

d.) day length helps birds to determine if they have had too much UV exposure.

e.) day length helps birds tune their songs to the right pitch.

f.) in the absence of daylength cues, birds begin to do things at the wrong time. 

CIRCLE

a.), b.), c.), f.) 

E2

Which of the following statements about the circulatory system of birds is TRUE?

a.) birds have high blood pressure.

b.) birds, like other reptiles, have a three chambered heart.

c.) birds move little blood with every stroke of their hearts.

d.) birds have low rates of heart failure.

e.) birds keep their heads warmer than their bodies by altering circulation.

f.) birds can slow the flow of blood to everything but the brain, in some cases. 

CIRCLE

a.), f.) 

E2

In which circumstances should you expect birds to favor vocal over visual forms of communication?

a.) when molting, and therefore not looking very fly.

b.) when nesting in a crowded colony.

c.) when trying to communicate only in the immediate vicinity.

d.) when tryign to communicate in a structurally complex environment.

e.) when lots of predators are nearby.

f.) at night. 

CIRCLE

b.), d.), e.) f.) 

E2

The feeding systems of birds are very diverse; which of the following have been factors in the tendency and ability of birds to evolve so many beak shapes and ways of eating?

a.) the ability of birds to fly has given them access to every kind of habitat.

b.) the loss of teeth in birds has made dramatic shape changes to the jaws.

c.) high energy needs in birds mean they have to eat a LOT.

d.) the jaw bones of birds are covered with a constantly growing horny sheath.

e.) in environments where conditions and food supplies change frequently, natural selection can produce changes in average bill size in as little as one year.

f.) some birds have evolved ways of storing food for use in times when food is scarce. 

CIRCLE

a.), b.), c.), d.), e.), f.) 

E2

Which of the following are sensory capacities that birds have but we do not?

a.) UV vision

b.) echolocation

c.) clairvoyance

d.) hearing in the range of infrasound

e.) synesthesia

f.) ability to detect magnetic fields 

CIRCLE

a.), b.), d.), f.) 

E2

The consequences of endothermy in birds include:

a.) a metabolism that consumes little energy

b.) an increase in energy costs with decreases in body size

c.) body temperatures close to the temperature at which proteins denature

d.) limitations on the ability of  birds to move around when they want where they want i'm in college i do what i want

e.) the need for some birds to allow their body temperatures to drop at night

f.) the inability of large birds to allow their body temperature to drop at night. 

CIRCLE:

b.), c.), e.) 

E2

When birds are in their thermoneutral zone:

a.) their metabolic rates fluctuate.

b.) their metabolic rate has no effect on their body temperature.

c.) they are not expending energy trying to get warmer or cooler.

d.) they are colder than their lower critical temperature.

e.) small increases in ambient temperatures do not cause increases in their metabolic rate.

f.) their metabolic rates are as low as they can be while keeping the bird warm enough. 

CIRCLE:

c.), e.), f.)