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| What traits do all human beings share? |
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Definition
1) genetic material
2)way to take in/process energy
3)mode of reproduction
4)a barrier that separates insides from outsides |
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Definition
| make or take in energy from a non-living source like the sun or plants |
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Definition
| gain energy from a living or once living creature |
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Definition
-largest thing on a cell
-very complex
-cells talk to each other constantly, when cell communication breaks down cancer occurs |
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Term
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Definition
-set of instructions for buildig bodies and maintaining them once they get built
-Double-Helix Backbone
-sugar and phosphates function to hold nitrogenous bases in the middle |
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Definition
-in the middle of the DNA
-complimentary base pairing: G&C and A&T
-process accomplished through making proteins |
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Term
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Definition
1) Transcription
-makes a copy of the DNA
2) MRNA
-puts different amino acids together
3) Translation
-happens outside of the Nucleus at the ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
-strings of amino acids
-most common=collagen |
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Definition
-made up of four strands
-more than just protein
-holds another molecule in the middle
-HEME: holds the molecule of iron |
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Definition
-kind of protein
-controls the bio-chemistry of your body through breaking down molecules |
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Term
| Microfilaments & Microtubules |
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Definition
| hold the structure of the cell like scaffolding and act like a monorail system to carry things around the cell |
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Definition
-subdivided into chunks called chromosomes
-contains DNA made into proteins=genes
-30-40 thousands genes in the body
-95% of DNA is JUNK DNA |
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Definition
PROBLEM: ACCURACY
-millions of cells that divide so the DNA has to replicate often |
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Term
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Definition
-when an error occurs in DNA replication
-as an error gets rarer it is harder to notice
-mutations happen at random
-cause variation
-ADVANTAGEOUS: for big, complex things to try to keep mutation rate as low as possible |
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Term
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Definition
1)Helpful
2)Hurtful
-more likely to hurt than help
3)No difference whatsoever
-MOST LIKELY B/C 95% of DNA is junk DNA |
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Term
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Definition
-mutation of the gene globin
-changes the appearance of blood cells |
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Term
| Why do mutations stay around? |
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Definition
1)Mutations occur every generation
2) Mutations are difficult to get rid of when rare and recessive
3)some are beneficial under certain circumstances
-EX: malaria and sickle cell anemia |
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Term
| What are the effects of reduced variation? |
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Definition
| -REDUCTION IN POPULATION SIZE |
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Term
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Definition
| even if the population is allowed to get large, the population only has the genetic variation of a few individuals |
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Definition
| few individuals breed together, not allowing new or novel genes to come into the population |
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Definition
a few individuals found a new populations
-genetic variation decreases |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
selection for one of the extremes of the population
EX:
1)Wild Cabbage: can get so many different plants by selecting a specific thing
2)Rosemary and Peter Grant: |
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Term
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Definition
not good to be at either extreme, good to just be in the middle
EX: Size of human bodies at birth
-human gestation limited by birth canal and head size |
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Definition
not good to be in the middle, good to be at either extreme
EX: Black-bellied Seedcracker
-only big or small beaked birds survive so food need to be either large or small |
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Term
| Frequency dependent selection |
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Definition
EX: Scale eating Fish
-relatively small and mouth is bent toward the right or the left....which is better?
-BEST=whatever is rarest at the time |
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Term
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Definition
-Drosophilia Fly
-behavior of females changed after they mated
-could mating change behavior?
EXPERIMENT:
-held females evolutionary constant for 30 generations
-worked well for males while females were less likely to mate and have more babies
-chemical in males semen caused female to spend more energy and not want to mate |
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Term
| Problem with understanding evolution |
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Definition
TIME
To solve problem: use a species with a short generation time-e.coli |
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Term
| Richard Lenski Experiment |
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Definition
-looked at bacteria to watch evolutionary change b/c generation time is so short (30 min)
-took bacteria and started 12 different cultures and let them divide
FOUND:
-avg. fitness goes up
-better at surviving the cell gets larger; however, it hits a plateau at generation 1200
-b/c being one thing is only good to a certain pt. |
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Term
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Definition
-important feature of evolution
-one thing is not always ideal |
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Term
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Definition
| periods of no change to periods of change |
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Term
| Group Selection VS. Individual Selection |
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Definition
-Individual: do things to better yourself-G.C. Williams
-Group: do things for the better of the group-Wayne Edwards |
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Term
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Definition
-when a bee feels danger it stings you
-when pulling away from the sting she rips herself in half
-EXAMPLE OF GROUP SELECTION-V.C. Wayne Edwards |
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Term
| Coefficient of Relatedness |
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Definition
-Parent-Kid:1/2
-Grandparent-Grandkid: 1/4
-Aunt/Uncle-Niece/Nephew: 1/4
-Cousin: 1/8 |
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Term
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Definition
| get evolutionary points through the reproduction of your relatives |
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Term
| Belding's Ground Squirrels |
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Definition
-individuals warn each other w/ a loud cry when danger is present
-why warn others?
-Male Exogamy: relatively few males do all of the mating
-high degree of relatedness
-females do the calling b/c they have a higher degree of relatedness |
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Term
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Definition
-most bats live in large groups; however, vampire bats live in small roosts
-not related
-on any given night 33% of the juveniles and 7% of the adults will not feed
-vampire bats will die if they do not feed 2 nights in a row
-RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM |
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Term
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Definition
-i borrow from u and i will pay you back sometime
-more likely to share with someone you know and will not share with someone you dont think will pay you back
-only share when you know that person is truly in need |
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Term
| What is truly unique about humans? |
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Definition
| -the occasional act of being truly altruistic |
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Term
| Ch. 7: Why Marriage? Why are women monogamists? |
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Definition
Men: Wealth and power are means to women; women are means to genetic eternity
Women: acquire a provider husband; strive to find a lover who can give good genes. |
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Term
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Definition
HRDY: SPERM COMPETITION THEORY
-looks at infanticide
-social pattern of female monkeys and apes is determined by the distribution of food; for males determined by the distribution of females
-marriage is a means of ensuring protection for the young
-males are faithful to their harem, so are females
-males keep harem safe and protect children
-female chimpanzees are promiscuous with many males so they all protect her |
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Term
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Definition
1)Women seek monogamous marriage
2)Women are sometimes unfaithful
3)Women do necessarily seek sexual variety |
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Term
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Definition
1)In apes, bigger testicles=more polygamous the female
-in comparison with other animals humans have medium-sized testicles=not so promiscuous females
2)Birds
-extra pair copulation: 40% of birds in the nests are bastards
-lekking birds=small testicles-no competition, on male bird dominates all female beirds |
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Term
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Definition
-noticed in birds, females mate with bachelors but have lovers who are married (dominant, attractive, older)
-attractive males=inattentive fathers
-orgasms (Baker & Bellis):
-55% high-retention among faithful women
-40% fertile among unfaithful women
-70% fertile w/ lover
-females attain more sperm with husband who has been gone all day |
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Term
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Definition
Reasons:
1)Males must stay around, have sex often to be sure of paternity
2) concealing ovulation allows female to choose the male she wants |
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Term
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Definition
-a women loses no genetic investment if her husband is unfaithful, but a man risks raising a bastard
-adultery is a crime in society b/c it introduces alian children into the family, uncertainty |
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Term
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Definition
-females are faithful to her husband; her husband is faithful to her
=male has a harem and is equally faithful to each female
-male keeps female and children safe, children from infaticide
-sex is infrequent |
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Term
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Definition
-women live alone and apart from each other
-men live alone but each visit several women for occasional sex
-battles between males who meet |
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Term
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Definition
-live in families
-social
-males climb hierarchy
-males take no part in rearing young
-most women mate w/ most men, but thetop male get seniority over the most fertile female
-lost of se during fertile period but not at other times
-females mate 500x for every baby |
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Term
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Definition
-roving bands of dominant men who take advantage of groups of women
-women share paternity widely
-lots of sex-3000x for every baby |
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Term
| Cuckoldry Paranoia-Adultery |
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Definition
1)Mate guarding: some birds guard their wives to discourage unfaithfulness
2) Frequent Sex: does not prevent adultery, but dilutes any other sperm that may be competing in an unfaithful wife
3) Resources: females accept gifts of food from men in exchange for sex b/c it ensures a relationship should marriage go wrong
CONCLUSION:
-sexual division of labor, child-rearing marriages, and the invention of language are three uniquely human characteristics that depend on each other |
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Term
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Definition
| Are there differences between the mentalities of men and women? |
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Term
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Definition
1) Girls are better at verbal tasks
2) Boys are better at mathematical tasks
3) Boys are more aggressive
4) Girls and boys are better at certain visuo-spatial tasks:
-males need to get back from hunting (sense of direction)
-females need to identify things around them (gathering) |
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Term
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Definition
1)genetic differences are reinforced with cultural conditioning
-conscious choice and technology influence evolution
-nurture reinforces nature
EX: violence is predominant in males
Don Symons: mean and women have diff. minds because they have different ambitions and rewards
AGAINST:
-Hudson and Jacot: differences are learned from parents and peers |
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Term
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Definition
| The normal brain is female, unless it is masculinized. Genes respond to testosterone to cause its effects. Testosterone must be given at the right time. |
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Term
| Testosterone and the Body and Brain |
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Definition
-masculinizes teh body and the brain
EX:
1)a female zebra finch will sing as long as she has been exposed to terosterone early in life and as an adult
2)Turner's syndrome: women have no ovaries, thus less testosterone. Very feminine in appearance and attitude |
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Term
| Sexism and the Kibbutz Life |
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Definition
Men: dominating, competitive, self-controlled, power seeking
-stem from hunting role, fighting for mates
Women: loving, sympathetic, generous,
-stem from child-rearing role
Both genders have jobs that suit their diff. personalities
Kibbutz System:
-gender roles are not enforced
-experiment fails and genders return to their typical tendencies |
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Term
| 5-Alpha-reductase deficiency |
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Definition
-male possesor is insensitive to testosterone before birth
-born with female genitalia and raised as girls until puberty, when testosterone level rises and they turn into normal men |
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Term
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Definition
Reasons:
-genes that affect how testicles develop
-gene that affects brain's response
-different learning experience during burst of testosterone during puberty
-combo. of all of these |
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Term
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Definition
Men: frequent, visual, promiscuous, depict many ppl.-porn
Women: contextual, intimate, passive-romance novels |
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Term
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Definition
| "The degree to which an animal of either sex is choosy correlates exactly with the degree to which it invests in parental care." |
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Term
| Helen Fisher-Male Choosiness |
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Definition
-there is a natural term for divorce (every 4 yrs.)
FALSE: male preference for young mates implies life-long mateships, less stepchildren, divorcees are much older |
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Term
| Differences in Male and Female Sexual Tendencies |
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Definition
Men: more likely to be tempted by an opportunity for casual sex, want health, youth, and beauty
Women: suspicious of casual sex, want money or whatever resource is helpful for children from men |
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Term
| Why are there differences in Males & Female? |
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Definition
Men have more at stake, so they yield power, control wealth, and seek fame.
Women are rewarded for seeking power, wealth, or fame; thus, tehy choose mates that are rich and powerful. |
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Term
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Definition
| People lower their expectations according to their age, looks, and wealth. |
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Term
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Definition
| What makes people sexually attractive to one another? Is beauty nature or nurture? |
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Term
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Definition
Political Implications: homosexuality is innate and natural; selective abortion; removes anxiety of "turning gay"
Moral Implications: entertains the innateness of homosexuality |
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Term
| How does the gay gene survive given that gay people can't have children? |
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Definition
1)Good for female fertility when in women, bad for male fertility when in men
2)like the "male killer" gene found in bugs which ensures the success of females
-suggests that sexuality evolved by natural and sexual selection; they are adaptive
-people are attractive because others have genes that cause them to find beautiful people attractive. suggests why some things are beautiful while others are not |
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Term
| What Freud says about incest? |
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Definition
-People secretly desire incest but overcome this with the help of sexual taboos
1) Our first and most intense sexual attraction is toward the opposite sex parent
-Prob: equates attraction with sexual attraction; no proof that people have incestuous desires |
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Term
| What Westermarck says about incest? |
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Definition
1) Instinct: people are not turned on by those they were reared with and so they avoid them
-stepsiblings unlikely to marry; childhood friends unlikely; more likely for two children reared apart to fall in love
EX:
-kibbutz system: kids dont marry one another
-taiwan: couples raised together are not attracted to one another, not fertile |
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Term
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Definition
The instinct not to mate with childhood friends is nature, the feature by which you recognize them are nurture.
EX: Chaffinches learn how to sing from other chaffinches, but only during a critical period between two weeks and two months of age |
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Term
| Why do men prefer skinny women? |
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Definition
-less fertile
-rich and poor can be thin
-fad seemingly new
-male acquire these preferences during the critical period
Fisher Method:Males prefer skinny women b/c toher males prefer the same thing |
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Term
| Dev Singh: Why waists matter? |
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Definition
| The ratio of waist to breasts and hips determines attractiveness by males. As long as her waist is much thinner than her hips, he will be attracted to her. The ideal figure is one with the lowest ratio, not the thinnest torso |
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Term
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Definition
We are descended from men who chose young women as mates and so left more sons and daughters in the world than other men.
EX:
-men prefer blondes.
-blonde hair fades after a certain age, so it is telling that the women is youthful
Women's shape is a cue to youth and child-rearing ability. |
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Term
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Definition
Men place physical features above personality and status; women do not when choosing men.
-Exception: tall men are more attractive to women than short men
Females look for cues to a man's potential rather than on his past achievements. |
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Term
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Definition
| Why do humans have such big brains? |
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Term
| Noam Chomsky: Myth of Learning |
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Definition
There is a deep structure that is universal to all languages and that is programmed into the brain rather than being learned.
-children have a language system in their brains ready and waiting to apply the rules |
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Term
| Durkheim: Implications of Nurture |
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Definition
People are blank slates on which culture writes.
1)Anything that varies between cultures is cultural
2) anything developing rather than appearing at birth is learned
3) anything genetic is inflexible |
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Term
| Fox: Implications of Nurture |
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Definition
| Explains that problem as a battle between original sin and the perfectibility of man |
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Term
| Mead: Implications of Nurture |
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Definition
| sexual and cultural variety is effectively infinite and is therefore the product of nurture; didn't prove nurture's predominance |
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Term
| Freud: Implications of Nurture |
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Definition
| explains everything according to childhood influences |
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Term
| Socio-Biologists:Implications of Nature |
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Definition
| Animals develop natures, why not humans? |
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Term
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Definition
1)Genetic: in the sense that it is inherent in the genes' instructions to include a detailed language-acquisition device. This device grows after birth, and feed off examples over time
2)Cultural: in the sense that the vocabulary and syntax of the language are arbitrary and learned. |
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Term
| Nurture is not necessarily the opposite of nature |
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Definition
| Mixture of two: our genes, they are all and always will be genes taht develop and are calibrated by experience |
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Term
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Definition
-Women seek clues to statues w/ changes in fashion.
-Men seek clues to fertility, which do not point to fashion
1)Perhaps each sex simply acts out its instinct in the conviction that the other sex likes the same as they do
Women: imitate others around them |
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Term
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Definition
Beauty cannot exist w/out ugliness. We settle for the best we can get; we determine our desirability based on the responses of others toward us.
Standard of Beauty=a Red Queen race
-always something more beautiful |
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Term
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Definition
The neocortex is largely a courtship device to attract and retain sexual mates:It's specific evolutionary function is to stimulate and entertain other people and to assess the stimulation attempts of others
-there are forces that cause change in ornaments; there must be something to explain the expansion of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
Women have to be as varied and creative in their behavior as possible to keep a husband around.
-a human infant is born helpless and immature; thus the woman needs to keep the man around to raise the child. |
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Term
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Definition
| the choosiness of humans in picking mates has driven the mind into a history of frenzied expansion for no reason except that wit, virtuosity, inventiveness, and individuality turn other people on. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain has mechanisms to recognize sold objects by looking at its edges and the contrast between light and dark. |
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