What are plants high/ low in?

animals high/low in?

plants: high carbs low in fat/protein

animals: high in fat/protein low carbs

grazers - feed on leafy material

browsers - feed on woody material

chemical makeup of:

wood/bark

leaves

phloem/sap

seeds

-wood/bark - carbs = cellulose

- leaves - carbs = mix of sucrose and cellulose;enzymes

- phloem/ fruit - carbs = sucrose low in protein

- seeds - provisions for embryo = starch/ fat oil

-starch(alpha formation) can be broken down with enzyme in animals

-cellulose (beta formation) can not be broken down, animals have no enzyme to do so

symbiotic relationship with bacteria and protozoa that break down cellulose and lignin for them in their stomach

- human chew/cook

-chickens = gizzards

1. large chunks go into the rumen where they frement and get regurgitated
2. regurgitated cud then chewed and swallowed again to increase SA for bacteria/protozoa
3. then go through remaining compartments

• ingestion of fecal material
• ensures more thorough digestion of plant material
• bacterially synthesized B vitamins
• better use of protein

• crop = reservoir for food before stomach
• gizzard = birds swallow rocks to grind seeds in strong muscular walls of gizzard

the ..... nitrogen the higher quality of plant

Nitrogen .... as plants/leaves matures

• more
• declines

• insects most abundant in growing season and mature before leaf maturation
• vertebrates have babies at the start of growing season

animal growth and distribution of living

- elephants found around water holes with highest Na content

increasing metatarsal length = increasing life expectancy

increasing metatarsal length = decreasing osteoarthiritis %

- metatarsal only grows in development so deficiency of nutrients when in utero or very young will determine if they have osteoarthiritis and therefore are less nimble to fend off preds so they die earlier

Animals as food

herbivores are ... limited and excrete wastes high in?

carnivores are ... limited; wastes high in?

• Nitrogen; carbon
• Carbon; nitrogen

• specialists- either eat  specific parts of many species or eat only a few species (monophagous)
• generalists - eat a wide variety of species and different parts (polyphagous) 
    

downfall of specialists?

who generally lives the longest?

• how do they get a balanced diet?
• or all of macro and micronutrients

- generalists- omnivores

• vertebrates: freshwater turles, carp, ALL hibernators
• invertebrates: freezing tolerance insects, mussels, oysters, clams

1. big fuel supply (glycolysis with no lactate)
2. tolerating acidosis (lactic acid is buffered by CaCO3 in shell or converted to ethanol and released through gills)
3. metabolic rate depression (decrease need for ATP, easier to get by on glycolysis)

homeothermy?

poikilothermy?

endothermy?

ectothermy?

heterothermy?

• maintain relative constant temp
• variable temperature
• endo - internal heat production
• ecto - aborb heat from external environment
• hetero - both produce heat and absorb heat (bats, bees)

aerobic vs anaerobic respiration in poikilotherms?

what is more favorrable for poikilotherms aquatic or terrestrial?

aerobic in normal activities

anaerobic under high stress and pursuing prey periods (short activity bursts)

• aquatic - more thermally stable

• high aerobic respiration
• fat, fur keep heat in
• generate energy rapidly

• colonize low resource environments
• use energy for growth instead of heat production
• minimum calorie requirements

• ability to be active in any thermal environment
• the smaller SA/V ratio the more thermally stable you become

population?

what limits geographic range?

• group of individuals of the same species in the same area. (must be interbreeding)
• natural border (mountain, river, ocean) or environmental conditions beyond tolerance

1. clumped
2. uniform
3. random

• count all individuals
• sample a subset of popln. 1m by 1m plot to find mean of a 1m by 1m plot then multiply by # of plots
• mark and recapture

N=nM/r

total population = number originally tagged x  total number caught to census

/

number caught to census that were tagged

what determines population density?

• resource limits and predation

demograpphy?

cohort? characteristics are?

• predicts the change in population size over time
• number of population born in the same year
  -birth rate
  -death rate

if r >0 then

if r = 0

r<0

• increase
• stable
• decrease

1. humans
2. rodents, perenial plants
3. spiders oysters, trees

discrete plotting times year to year

works for species that have specific breeding times each year

exponential growth

how are growth rates of geometric and exponential related?

population changes in continous matter, not year to year (gauged by r)

- e^r = lambda

- r =ln of lambda

logistic growth model

when does growth stop?

used to model population growth while accounting for carrying capacity

- growth stops when N=K

density independent factors?

density dependent factors?

ind: factors that affect the population regardless of population size

dep: factors that affect the population differently with population size(increase population increase affect)

intra - comp. among members of the same species

inter - comp. among members of different species battling for the same resource

• scramble/exploitation competition- negative effect of comp. is spread evenly among ind.
• contest/interference comp. - negative effect is only felt by some of the ind. while others are no affected (mate selection, nest sites)

• suppress growth

• delay maturation
• delay sex/reproduction

semelparous?

iteroparous?

• S - use all energy for growth and developement to produce one reproductive suicidal bout
  - many offspring
  -salmon, spiders
•  I - use lesser energy for reproduction more than once in a lifetime (mammals)
     - fewer offspring

Fecundity?

determining factors?

• number of offspring produced in a single reproductive effort
• can increase with an increase in age and size (many cold blooded animals)

parental care

altricial?

precocial?

• Altricial - requires nourishment after birth, offspring helpless (robins)
• precocial - offspring require little to no guidance, forage for themselves (deer)

r strategists

k strategists

• r - high population high growth rate
  -colonize new or distributed habitats
• k - try to stay around the carrying capacity
  -efficient resource use

assymetric competition?

symmetric comp.?

alpha and beta are not equal to each other

alpha and beta are equal to each other

organisms place in an ecosystem

competition, predator/prey interactions

fund - all the places an organism could exist

realized - where the organism actually exists

• temporal heterogeneity - rainy season or seasonal changes can affect relationship

• spatial heterogeneity - one species dominates one end of the cline and the other dominates the other end of the cline with coexistence inbetween

resource partitioning - ability to become more specialized on a certain gradient level

- five warblers forage for same insect in 5 different areas of pine

all time used on feeding is spent on searching.

no handling time

(whales, spiders)

increased handling time of prey limits amount of prey that can be taken at high densities

most common

(birds rodents)

• similar to type 2 at high prey density
• at low prey density predator hard to find prey because of prey cover, etc.

E1/Th1 > E2/ (Th1 + Th2) then eat prey 1

E1/Th1 < E2/ (Th1 + Th2) then eat prey 2

risk of predation can affect?

coevolution is?

foraging behavior

• two or more noninterbreeding species that are adapting due to natural selection in effect of changes of the other. (predator prey adaptations)

Chemical defenses

cryptic coloration

batesian or mullerian mimicry

protective armor

behavioral defenses

• odorous secretions
• toxic chemicals
• alarm pheremones

batesian mimicry

mullerian mimicry

• B - when one nontoxic species mimics the coloration of a known toxic species
• M - when multiple toxic species mimic the coloration of each other

when is a herbivore considered a predator?

Effects of herbivory on plants?

• when he consumes the whole plant or the seeds
• Loss of plant vigor
• decrease biomass
• at competitive disadvantage
• less seed output

• increase light level to younger foliage
• older less productive tissue eaten first