Ecology is the study of the interactions among organisms 

and between organisms and their environment. 

-Environmental Science or Conservation Biology use the 

principles of Ecology to help solve environmental problems

-Environmentalism is a concern for the conservation and 

improvement of the natural environment, both for its own sake 

as well as its importance to civilization. It may use ecology, 

but also economics and ethics.

in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual

change in genotype and phenotype

A population evolves when individuals with different 

genetic makeup survive or reproduce at different rates.

a 

measure that combines 

both richness and 

evenness 

LEVEL OF 

DIVERSITY

habitat or ecosystem

higher taxa- functional group

species

genetic

plasticity

morphological species- based on physcial attributes.

Early taxonomists (Carolus Linnaeus) used 

morphology to develop a classification system based 

on latin binomials: Genus species

biological species: based on reproduction of a species

• practical and simple to apply 

• often reflects evolutionary relationships-- similar 

morphology is often the result of common genetic 

ancestry (shared genes)

1) Variation within species may be high due to:____

Some species may look similar because they 

evolved those traits independently

Advantage of this definition:

• it has clear biological and evolutionary meaning 

Disadvantage: 

-sounds great, but can be difficult to apply in practice 

-Reproductive 

barriers may be 

hard to recognize

-Potential 

interbreeding does 

not mean actual

interbreeding 

1. Present-day explanations that reflect ongoing ecological 

interactions with other species and the environment.

2. A legacy of geological and evolutionary events in the 

recent and distant past.

1.Incident solar radation varies with season and latitude

2. Air circulation driven by solar radiation and earths rotatior

As it rises, the air cools. Cool air holds less moisture than 

warm air, so water precipitates out and falls as rain.

1. surface winds influenced by earths rotation

2.incident radiation also changes with season

3. local variation in climate indepedent of latitude... rain shadow

Continental movements 

simultaneously cause 

isolation and create 

opportunities for migration

-Very similar fossils are found in the land masses that were 

once joined in the supercontinent Gwondalaland 

-The rise of the Panamanian land bridge (ca 3 MYA) 

simultaneously united the Americas and separated the central 

Atlantic and Pacific oceans 

-Acquiring Resources (today)

-Defense against Predators (Mon) 

-Life histories and reproduction 

the relationship between the benefits of a 

trait in one context and its costs in another context 

- all life functions cannot be 

simultaneously maximized

Carbon 

Oxygen 

Hydrogen

Nitrogen 

Phosphorous 

other macronutrients 

micronutrients

can live exclusively on 

inorganic sources of carbon, nitrogen, 

and other essential resources. 

Photoautotrophs use energy from 

sunlight to power metabolism, growth, 

and resource-gathering. 

2. Heterotrophs use pre-form

use pre-formed organic 

molecules as food (source of carbon, 

nitrogen, energy and other essential 

resources).

of not just 

light and carbon dioxide but also nutrients and 

trace minerals

106 CO2 + 90 H2

O +16 NO3

 + PO4

 + trace minerals = biomass + 150 O2

cholrophyl a

chlorophyl b

chlorphyl c

a: all plants

b: land plants and green algea

c: dinoflagelletes, diatoms, brown algea

nitrogen fixing bacteria

what can fungi do for plants

rhozobia

enhance nutrient and water intake

what part about the algal morphology could increase the nutrient uptake

trade off:

the broas bumby blade flaps in the current, increasing nutrient delivery

Trade off: dislodgement by heavy surf

1. what they eat

2.how they gather food

Herbavores

onmivores

carnivores

detritivores

plant

animal materials

both plant and animal

dead plant material ( fungi, low quality food)

_{suspension feeder}

deposit feeder

predator

symbiont

remove suspended particles from water

consume deadd organic matter

active hinter of live organisms speed and ot stealth

live in with or on another organism and obtain nutrition from that organism (parasaitic vs mutualist)

1.effort required to capture and consume prey

2.value of the prey

rewards= energy content

costs= handeling time , pursue capture eat and digest prey, toxins?

avoud pretators

find mates

foragers might select a broad diet to obtain a vartiey of nutrients

waxy covering to leaves/ reflective leaf surface 

small vertical leaves- lowers surface to volume ratio

wilting  or shedding leaves in dry period- reduce stomata density or opening

traits that enhance water supply

tradeoff:

deep tap roots

storage of water during times of plenty- stems, bulbous roots, 

water saving adaptation will reduce photsynthesis

mesophyl cell will contain site for co2 uptake and fixation

Rubisco enzyme catalyzes this

does better in lower light and temp

water efficent and has two sites that will uptake co2 and then fixation.

uses: PEP carboxylase 

stomata is open for less time: functions better at higher temps and more lights

avoid detection: burrows

Cost: time reduced feeding time, energy spent digging

camouflage- tied to a particular habitat, limited mobility

safety in numbers: 

plants are likely to be caught

defenses

throns, trichomes, poisen ivy, 

cost: more energy devoted to these extras 

direct: juvenile forms emerge from mother or egg in adult like form

indirect; involves larvae stage and metamorphosis into adult form

B: find new habitat when local conditions degrade

escape competition with close relatives

avoid inbreeding with close relatives

decrease chance of total ineage failure "spreading risk"

C:less fedding and growth

high risk of individual mortality 

reduced chance of finding suitable habitat

many,small highly dispersed offspring, small body size, short life, early reproduction

allocate to rapid growth and high reproduction

little parental care

semelparity- reproduce one time before death

environmental condition keep population at loe density 

habitat is usually unpredictable variable and harsh, disturbed

mortalility is independent of other organisms and often castatrophic

fewer and higher qaulity offspring

large in body size

long life expectancy delayed reprodcution

allocate to defense persistance 

high parental care and investment

iteroparity- reproduce many times before death

environmental condition keep population at high density

habitat is predictable favorable for growth and survival

mortail;tiy is often caused by interaction with other organisms

open population

vs closed population

- geometric: the per capita growth rate is contant or density independent

- the per-capita growth rate varies with population density or is density dependent

(population in next generation)= Population at a time + birth-Death

chane in population/change in time = (birth-death)Population 

This is a continous expression if organism reproduce continously

Age specific survivor ship

Survivorship curve

1,2,3

IndivudalsIndividuals will live long llives

high probability rate of ddying

high birth death rates but live longer after

What happens if n=k 

n>k

n<k

Growth gets close zero

decelerates

accelertes

Change in population over change in time

for logistic

Why do relatives resemble each other 

corollary 1

corollary 2

Inheritance through discrete genes

I individuals ddiffer 

and magnitude of difference reflects time past since last shared common ancestor

 the view that, for any specific entity (such as a group of people), there is a set of incidental attributes all of which are necessary to its identity and function