Term
| The systematic ways that scientists go about gathering data, determining relationships between factors, and formulating explanations is known as the ____________ of science. |
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Definition
| Process. The term science can refer to either content or process. The content of science refers to what is known about science. The process of science refers to the activities of science and the methods that are used to gain knowledge. |
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Term
| The scientific techniques used to collect and evaluate psychological data are called _________________. |
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Definition
| Methodology. Methodology refers to the techniques that are used to collect and evaluate data. All areas of psychology are dependent upon research and the collation and study of data. |
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Term
| When a person gathers their psychological information from family, friends, and the media, such information is referred to as a _______________ source of data. |
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Definition
| Nonscientific. Nonscientific sources of data are those which are acquired through personal experiences, such as reading a book, talking with friends, or watching television. |
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Term
| Research has shown that people are more likely to believe information from nonscientific sources if it comes from a person with _______ status. |
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Definition
| High. High status people carry considerable influence through their looks, position, or popularity. Research has shown that information from such people is more likely to be believed. Information is also more likely to be believed if it comes from people who seem like experts or seem confident. |
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Term
| Researchers believe that people are often ______________ of factors that influence their decision-making. |
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Definition
| Unaware. A study which successfully used music to influence the purchase of a specific wine discovered that only one out of 44 people thought the music had influenced them. The study showed that people are often unaware of the factors that influence their decision-making. |
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Term
| When a person makes judgments about the traits of a person based on observations of the person's behavior, this is called nonscientific _____________. |
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Definition
| Inference. A nonscientific inference occurs when traits are assigned to a person based on a person's observed behavior. An example of a nonscientific inference is thinking that a person who always dresses well is shallow. |
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Term
| The scientific belief that behavior is causal-based and can therefore be predicted is called _______________. |
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Definition
| Determinism. Determinism is based on the idea that behavior must follow a natural order, where the effect observed must have an associated cause. The acceptance that behavior is causal-based allows for behavior to be predicted. |
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Term
| Data that can be recorded because it is observable or experienced personally is called ______________ data. |
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Definition
| Empirical. Empirical data is data that is gained by either observation or experience. Systematic observation is often a component of research, but it is not always able to reach correct conclusions. |
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Term
| The principle of _____________ refers to the general idea that the simplest explanation is preferred and that making unnecessary assumptions to support a more complicated hypothesis should be avoided. |
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Definition
| Parsimony. The principle of parsimony is also known as Occam's razor. It refers to the idea that unnecessary assumptions should not be made to support a complicated theory. Instead, the simplest theory should be preferred until it is proven incorrect. |
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Term
| The systematic viewing and documentation of events is a tool of psychological science called ________________. |
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Definition
| Observation. Events that are observable are the only events that can be studied scientifically. Observable behaviors can be used to study internal processes such as feeling or thinking. This occurs by observing a behavior that is a sign of the internal process occurring. |
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Term
| In order to be successfully replicated and consistently documented, observations must be made _______________. |
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Definition
| Systematically. A scientific study requires systematic observation. This involves applying the same system to all observations made. If observations are not completed systematically, the experiment is not able to be duplicated. It is also important that observations are made objectively. |
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Term
| When numerical values are assigned to objects or events according to conventional rules, this is referred to as _______________. |
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Definition
| Measurement. Measurement refers to the assigning of numerical values to objects or events. One approach often used in psychological research is to rate a behavior observed on a scale of 1 to 10. For example, an individual might be rated on a scale of 1 to 10 to indicate how angry they appear. |
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Term
| When a process is undertaken in order to prove or disprove a hypothesis, this process is called __________________. |
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Definition
| Experimentation. Experimentation involves the manipulation of aspects of a setting to gauge the success of predicting behavior under specific conditions. For an experiment to be possible, the prediction made must be testable. This requires that conditions must be able to be manipulated and that the predicted outcome must be observable. |
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Term
| The circumstances that precede an event or behavior are called ________________ conditions. |
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Definition
| Antecedent. If all antecedents of a behavior can be identified, the outcome of behavior can be predicted. If successful, then should the identical set of antecedents occur again, the same outcome can be expected. |
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Term
| When an experiment allows a researcher to make a causal statement that connects the antecedent conditions to the subject's behavior, this is called a cause and _________ relationship. |
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Definition
| Effect. A cause and effect relationship is one where the antecedents that are responsible for the observed behavior are known. If a certain set of antecedents are always followed by a certain behavior, it is concluded that the antecedents caused the behavior. |
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Term
| The cause and effect relationship established in experiments is called a _____________ relationship. |
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Definition
| Temporal. A temporal relationship is one based on time. In experimentation, researchers look for effects that occur after the cause. This typically involves research subjects experiencing treatment conditions, with researchers then observing the effect of the treatment conditions. |
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Term
| When a statement can be either true or false, it is called a _______________ statement. These are the basis for all experimental hypotheses. |
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Definition
| Synthetic. A synthetic statement is used for a hypothesis. It is a statement that can be either true or false. The results of the experiment either prove or disprove the hypothesis. |
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Term
| The process of reasoning from specific cases to form more general principles is called _______________ reasoning. |
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Definition
| Inductive. Inductive reasoning is the basis of the inductive model of formulating a hypothesis. It refers to the process of reasoning where a specific case is expanded to a more general principle. For example, observing several athletes who appear confident could lead to a general theory that a high level of physical activity increases confidence. |
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Term
| Opposite to inductive reasoning is the process of using general principles to calculate the possibility of a specific instance. This process is called ______________. |
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Definition
| Deduction. Deduction is the opposite process to inductive reasoning. It refers to applying general principles to a specific instance. For example, the equity theory describes how individuals try to optimize their outcomes. Applying this theory to a specific person as a way of predicting their behavior is an example of deductive reasoning. |
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Term
| An excellent source of hypotheses to test is ___________ experimental research. |
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Definition
| Prior. Prior research is useful not only in finding new avenues to explore, but also in helping a researcher focus on a specific issue. It may also help to suggest variables that a researcher had not yet thought of. |
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Term
| A researcher's principal interest when recruiting and using research subjects is that they be treated _____________. |
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Definition
| Ethically. All researchers have a responsibility to their subjects and must ensure that research subjects are treated ethically. |
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Term
| Another reason that ethics play such a large part in scientific research is that researchers are ____________ responsible for what happens to their subjects. |
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Definition
| Legally. A researcher is liable for any damage or harm to the subjects of an experiment, even if the harm is unintentional. This is an additional reason that ethics is an important consideration when conducting scientific research. |
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Term
| Any place of research that intends to engage in experiments is legally bound to create an institutional ____________ board. |
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Definition
| Review. An institutional review board evaluates studies before they are carried out. The board consists of both laypeople and researchers, which helps to ensure that the views of the general population are well represented. The board's biggest responsibility is to guarantee the safety of research participants. |
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Term
| A person who is more likely to be exposed to the possibility of injury or harm during an experiment is called a subject at ________. |
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Definition
| Risk. A subject at risk is a person predisposed to possible harm during a certain type of experiment. An example of a subject at risk is a person with epilepsy taking part in an experiment about the triggering of seizures. |
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Term
| When an institutional review board must decide whether the risks to a subject outweigh the potential gains of the research, this is called a ______-_________ analysis. |
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Definition
| Risk-benefit. In order to make such a decision, the board must consist of people who are skilled and experienced in research methodology. This helps to ensure that the best and safest course of action is determined. |
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Term
| When a subject agrees to participate in an experiment after being fully briefed of its particulars and made aware of any risks that it may entail, this is called _____________ consent. |
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Definition
| Informed. Participants in research are required to give their informed consent for any study they are going to take part in. This consent must be freely given and must not be given as a result of any coercion or force. |
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Term
| Informed consent is based on six enforceable measures. One of these is the freedom of participants to ____________ the experiment at any time of their choosing. |
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Definition
| Leave. One of the six enforceable measures of informed consent is that the participants must have the freedom to leave the experiment at any time. If a research subject chooses to leave any experiment at any time, they must be allowed to do so. |
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Term
| Another measure of informed consent is that researchers agree that all data will remain completely _________________. |
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Definition
| Confidential. All data gathered about a subject during research must remain private and confidential. This assurance must be given before the experiment takes place. |
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Term
| Another measure of informed consent is that researchers must clearly explain any ________ to a participant. |
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Definition
| Risks. Researchers must outline any possibility of pain or injury and must answer any questions they are asked on the subject. The participant should be fully aware of and have a full understanding of the risks before agreeing to take part in the experiment. |
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Term
| The final measure of informed consent is that, according to federal guidelines, subjects may not be asked to __________ their legal rights. |
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Definition
| Waive. A subject may not sign away their right to appeal against negligence or harm in the course of a research experiment. This includes that researchers may not request that participants waive their legal rights. |
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Term
| In 1979, The US Government issued a statement on ethics known as the Belmont Report. It contained three basic ethical principles. The first was ____________ for persons. |
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Definition
| Respect. Respect for persons maintains that every human being has the right to make his or her decisions about research they may undergo. The respect for persons principle also provides protection for potentially disadvantaged groups. |
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Term
| The second principle in the Belmont Report was that of _________________, which refers to the duty to minimize risks and maximize benefits. |
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Definition
| Beneficence. Beneficence involves a duty to minimize the risk of harm, while maximizing any benefits possible. The maximizing of benefits can include maximizing benefits to society as a whole rather than to individual research subjects. |
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Term
| The Belmont Report's third and final principle on the policy of ethics in research is ______________. |
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Definition
| Justice. The principle of justice helps to ensure that researchers are choosing their subjects with fairness in mind. In the past, disadvantaged groups had been exploited for the purposes of research, and this principle was developed to halt such exploitation. |
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Term
| When the subject of an experiment is a minor, _______________ must be obtained from their parent or legal guardian. |
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Definition
| Consent. This consent must be written, and a copy made for the subject to keep. Consent from a parent or guardian does not overrule the rights of informed consent for the participant themselves. The minor retains the full rights of any individual and must have the risks of the research explained to them in full. Minors also retain the right to refuse to participate. |
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Term
| In 2002, the American _________________ Association published its own guidelines on the ethics of research. |
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Definition
| Psychological. These standards applied to all practicing psychological clinicians and students. The standards include the same requirements set by civil law, and also require the approval of an institutional review board before experimentation can proceed. |
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Term
| The American Psychological Association also has a standard relating to the use of _______________ in research. |
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Definition
| Deception. Though some argue that the study of several important psychological problems is impossible without a degree of deception involved, the APA has set forth strict guidelines for its use. |
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Term
| One of the guidelines that the APA has set forth regarding the use of deception in research is that experiments involving deception may not proceed unless the use of deceptive techniques is ________________. |
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Definition
| Justified. According to the APA guidelines, the prospective outcomes of the research must be more beneficial or of higher scientific or educational value than those that could be obtained without using deception. |
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Term
| When a researcher holds to the principle of full disclosure, a ________________ must be conducted at the end of any session of experimentation that has included deception. |
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Definition
| Debriefing. Debriefing involves a complete explanation of the true nature and purpose of the study and the provision of any services required to further support the participants. A debriefing is required at the end of any experimental session that has involved deception. |
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Term
| The humane care and treatment of animals is called animal ___________. |
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Definition
| Welfare. Animal welfare is regulated by the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 and was amended in 1991 to add new guidelines addressing the psychological wellbeing of more intelligent animals. |
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Term
| Any place of research involved with animals must have an _____________ animal care and use committee. |
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Definition
| Institutional. An institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) evaluates all research before it can be undertaken. In some cases, it must also determine that the researchers have looked for any other possible alternatives before experimenting on animals. This is supported by federal regulations. |
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Term
| Under the APA standard 809, which is the humane care of animals in research, researchers must make reasonable efforts to ___________ the discomfort and pain of any animal subject. |
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Definition
| Minimize. Researchers must also ensure that anyone under their supervision has received appropriate instruction in the maintenance, care, and handling of the species of animal used. |
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Term
| The APA guidelines state that animal research is acceptable only to further the understanding of ________________ principles and to promote human welfare. |
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Definition
| Behavioral. The APA guidelines state that research involving animals is only justified if it furthers the understanding of behavior or if it promotes human welfare. Many argue that human welfare should not be placed above animal welfare as both are sensate beings who can experience psychological and physical pain. |
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Term
| In 1983, Miller and Williams argued that some animal experiments are repeated time and time again with no _________________ justification. |
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Definition
| Epistemological. An epistemological justification can be made in a case where researchers have discovered new and valuable information. Miller and Williams and other animal advocates argue that extensive research is often done on animals, while not revealing anything that researchers did not already know. |
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Term
| A researcher who has received favorable outcomes with experimentation on animals is Edward Taub. Taub's research with monkeys was recently awarded for its great benefit in treating ________-induced paralysis. |
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Definition
| Stroke. Using monkeys, Taub surgically disconnected the brain from one limb. This limb was then unable to be used. When Taub then restrained the use of the good limb, he found that monkeys eventually began to use the other again, growing new sensory connections. This research has helped in the development of techniques for treating stroke-induced paralysis. |
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Term
| When a scientist publishes false or misleading information while reporting on their research, this is called _________. |
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Definition
| Fraud. Publishing false or misleading scientific research is a form of fraud. The falsification of data is a serous breach of the ethical standards laid down by the American Psychological Association. |
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Term
| When investigating potentially fraudulent data, researchers often attempt to _____________ the findings. |
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Definition
| Replicate. If the results of a study are unable to be replicated, it is often determined that fraud has taken place. Important or novel findings in science are often replicated by others in order to determine their legitimacy. |
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Term
| When something is published that uses the words or data of others, and does not credit them accordingly, this is called ______________. |
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Definition
| Plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious breach of ethics. Researchers who engage in plagiarism are often dealt with via legal action. In the case of students, it can result in failure and expulsion. |
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Term
| Plagiarism is not always a clear-cut case of copying facts and figures. Another example of plagiarism is _______________ the ideas of others, with this amounting to plagiarism when the source of the ideas are not cited correctly. |
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Definition
| Paraphrasing. Many people paraphrase the work of others in their own research. This is acceptable when the source of the information is cited correctly. If the source of the idea is not cited, paraphrasing can amount to plagiarism. |
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Term
| One of the simplest methods of discovering people's attitudes, opinions, and preferences is ____________ research. |
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Definition
| Survey. Survey research refers to any type of research that involves asking research subjects questions. Survey research allows large amounts of data to be gathered in an efficient manner. |
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Term
| The two most common forms of survey research are written questionnaires and ______-____-_____ interviews. |
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Definition
| Face-to-face. In a face-to-face interview, there may be only one interviewee, or there may be a large focus group. Face-to-face surveys also include telephone interviews. Though no face is seen, the interviewer is still talking directly to the interviewee. |
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Term
| Survey experts believe that the first step in creating any successful survey is to ______ out the research objectives. |
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Definition
| Map. Many survey experts believe that a fundamental problem with surveys is a lack of planning. If the research objectives are mapped out as clearly and specifically as possible, there is a better chance that the researchers will receive the critical information they need. |
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Term
| Many surveys include more than one kind of question. One type of question often asked in a survey is a __________ question. These questions require definitive answers. |
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Definition
| Closed. Closed questions, also known as structured questions, are one of the most common types of questions included in a survey. They can include either questions with a yes or no answer or questions asking for a rating on a scale. |
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Term
| A common type of question included on many surveys is an _________ question. These questions often focus on feelings and opinions. |
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Definition
| Open. Open questions often focus on feelings, attitudes, and opinions rather than facts. An example of an open question would be 'how do you feel about the current government?' |
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Term
| When quantifying answers to survey questions, a system is designed to correctly categorize them. This is called _____________ analysis. |
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Definition
| Content. Content analysis is similar to the recording of observable behavior on a pre-designed scale. With survey questions, content analysis organizes the responses into easily identifiable categories. |
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Term
| When constructing a survey intended to be understandable in order to get clear responses, it is best to avoid double-____________ questions. |
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Definition
| Barreled. Double-barreled questions, also referred to as compound questions, may confuse or intimidate the survey-taker. The result is non-informative, incomplete, or unusable data. An example of a double-barreled question is 'do you like ice cream and cake?' The question is double-barreled because the question has two subjects, but only asks for one answer. |
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Term
| A scale used to measure the response of a survey is called a ___________ of measurement. |
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Definition
| Level. There are four different levels of measurement, each applying to a different way of measuring data. The four levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. |
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Term
| A simple level of measurement which classifies response items into two categories on the basis of a common feature is called a ___________ scale. |
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Definition
| Nominal. A nominal scale groups items into categories able to be named, but does not quantify the items. For example, a true/false test uses nominal measurement. |
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Term
| Nominal scaling is often referred to as the _________ level of measurement because it does not provide information about differences in magnitude between the items. |
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Definition
| Lowest. While nominal scaling does not provide information about magnitude, it is the only scale that can be used for some types of data. For example, when assessing someone's political affiliation, the answers are static and nominal scaling is appropriate. |
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Term
| The rank ordering of response items is called an ___________ scale. |
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Definition
| Ordinal. An ordinal scale involves rating items based on a ranking system. The rating can be based on words, such as asking a person how positive they feel and providing possible answers of very positive, positive, average, negative, or very negative. It can also be based on a number scale, such as asking people to rate themselves on a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 is very negative and 10 is very positive. |
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Term
| A scale which measures magnitude or quantitative size with equal intervals between values is an __________ scale. |
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Definition
| Interval. An interval scale has no true zero point. The scale used to measure temperature is an example of an interval scale. Although the Celsius scale can measure zero degrees Celsius, it is not a true zero point as temperatures below zero are measurable. It is an interval scale because the values between the degrees are equal. |
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Term
| The highest level of measurement is one in which there are equal intervals between all values and where there is a true zero point. It is called a ___________ scale. |
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Definition
| Ratio. A ratio scale has equal intervals between all values and also has a true zero point. The scales used to measure height, weight, and time are all ratio scales. |
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Term
| A tendency to respond to a question or a test item in a specific way despite the content of the test is called a response ___________. |
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Definition
| Style. A response style refers to a way that an individual tends to answer a question regardless of the content of the question. When designing survey questions, response styles such as willingness to answer, yea-saying, and nay-saying must be taken into account. |
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Term
| A common problem in survey research is an _______________ to answer. |
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Definition
| Unwillingness. If a question requires factual knowledge that the survey taker does not possess or understand, they may guess the answer or leave the question blank. This can make scoring and interpretation problematic. |
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Term
| When taking multiple choice tests, if a person repeatedly selects answer C if they are in doubt of the answer, this is referred to as a _______________ preference. |
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Definition
| Position. When designing a multiple choice test, researchers need to be mindful of position preference, as people's subconscious responses may influence the result of the test. |
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Term
| When most subjects take a survey, they are responding to the ______________ content of the questions. |
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Definition
| Manifest. The manifest content of questions is the clear meaning derived from the words on the page. For example, when asked a question such as 'do you own a car?' the manifest content is clear and precise, and most people will answer either yes or no. |
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Term
| A person who tends to agree with a question, regardless of its manifest content, is referred to as a _____-_________. |
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Definition
| Yea-sayer. Researchers have discovered that some subjects will respond to survey questions in a consistent way, especially when the questions are focused on emotional content. Yea-sayers tend to answer yes or agree to most questions of this nature. |
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Term
| A person who tends to disagree with a question, regardless of its manifest content, is referred to as a _____-________. |
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Definition
| Nay-sayer. Nay-sayers will most often select no or disagree to questions focused on emotional or subjective content. Researchers have found, in order to minimize the prevalence of yea-sayers and nay-sayers, questions need to be designed that prompt a more thoughtful response. |
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Term
| When two questions in a survey are related, their position in relation to each other may influence the way in which the question is interpreted. This is called ___________ effect. |
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Definition
| Context. Questions that are related can often influence the answer given to a question if they are placed together in a survey. For example, if questions about the attractiveness and the personality of a famous figure are placed side by side, there is likely to be a high degree of correlation between the answers. In such situations, it is useful to place a buffer question between related questions. |
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Term
| Deciding on who or what the subjects of a survey will be and then selecting them is called _____________. |
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Definition
| Sampling. Sampling is a critical issue, as data from samples is often the basis of forming conclusions about a larger population group without surveying each individual member of the larger group. |
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Term
| Choosing a sample which closely mirrors the larger population in order to accurately generalize findings of the survey is called __________________. |
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Definition
| Representativeness. Representativeness is important because sample responses should reflect similar information that may be acquired if one had surveyed the entire population. Representativeness makes it possible to extend findings and apply them to a larger population. |
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