largest domain and had vassal

                daimyo

were assigned collections of

                villages, were also hatamoto retainer

retainer control more power over the land, considered representative of shogun

system that allowed shogun to control daimyo by regulating which villages they were in and requiring them to live in Edo for a period of time.

Fudai

Vassal daimyo were hereditary retainers, shoguns advisors and

line of defense

rival, didnot support shogun; competing families; were interested in trade and were in charge of expansion

manufactured goods were created here

in charge of national projects; communication (writing style); trade regulation; control the Ainu (claiming tributaries); contruling religion (Christianity; registering Buddhist temples)

era of renisance once, led to lossing of the Sarkin oko tie system, era of economic reform, loses of Daimyo Family. Poetry become accessible to commoners.

began in 17th century where a prostitute

erected a stage on which to sing and dance to attract customers. Shogunate banned women from appearing on stage in 1629, boys replaced prostitutes

was distinguished by a unifying explains him for the universe, the physical world, and human nature.

Japanese believed they were supior b/c

                were desendents from Sun god

lifted bann on Western books as long as they did not promote Christianity. Japanese doctors were attracted to "Dutch studies" such as anatomy astronomy, geography and military science

trading company that

        dealt Asia; Frist organized effort, led to sea routes, developed

        competitor with British government

b/c of opening of trade, China's mantle which had once included Vietnam, Korea now had to be own by someone. China's influence was decreasing. Asia was being divided 

Bengal supplied opium that the British used to buy tea from China

restrict relations, serve as Middleman; Trade continued, albeit with British merchants calling for warships to enforce their demand, for elimination of Cohong

Lin Zexu was Chinese commissioner tried to control opium trade; first appealed to Queen Victoria, threw opium in the sea, led to opium war 

British tried to get china to pay reparations for the opium that was thrown into sea; British got ports in the north

tested china's mortality against British

        technology. China's defeat in the war forced it to open to the west

meant that w/ the exeption

 of opium traders, Americans in China we subject to American laws, judges, courts, and prisons

Commodore Perry's Kanagawa ''Friend ship" treaty

  opened two small parts to America ships, allowed an America consul to reside on Japanese soil, and provide for most favored nation 

Asian Disapora

Asian left to go to  America to work on things such as the railways.

Those who had favored compromising with the “ sea barbarians” to avoid further hostilities included the Manchu chancellor Mujangga; those opposed were mostly Chinese degree holders who had supported Lin Zexu and believed the Qing should have put up stronger resistance.

The founder of this sect was Hong Xiuquan ( 1814– 1864). Hong interpreted his visions to mean that he was Jesus’s younger brother. He began preaching, calling on people to destroy idols and ancestral temples, give up opium and alcohol, and renounce foot binding and prostitution. He called his group the God Worshipping Society and soon attracted many followers, especially among the Hakkas. Yang Xiuqing elevated himself and three others to top posts within the God Worshippers. To claim superiority over Hong, Yang announced that when he spoke, it was the voice of God the Father, putting him above Hong, the mere younger brother.

Preoccupied with its problems elsewhere, the Qing did not send Zuo Zongtang (1812– 1885) to retake the region until 1866. Zuo classed Sufis as heterodox, like White Lotus or Taiping sectarians, and ordered their slaughter. The campaign took five years and consisted largely of sieges during which the population slowly starved. Zuo Zongtang marched his troops into Xinjiang, which might well have broken away from Qing control otherwise.

Russia, seeing China’s weakness, penetrated the Amur River valley, violating the borders agreed to in 1689. In new treaties of 1858– 1860, Russia gained the maritime provinces of eastern Manchuria down to Vladivostok. A large part of the reason the Qing decided to march an army into Xinjiang was fear of Russian expansion there.

Both sides wanted the trade agreement reached after the Opium War renegotiated, though for different reasons. On the grounds that China had failed to implement all the provisions agreed to a decade earlier, the British and French decided to make swift, brutal coastal attacks, a repeat of the Opium War. (They called it the Arrow War, from the name of a ship that gave the British a pretext for war.) 

Scholar named Feng Guifen ( 1809–1874) wrote a set of essays presenting the case for wide-ranging reforms. He had taken refuge in Shanghai during the Taiping War and there had seen how the Westerners defended the city. In his essays he pointed out that China was a hundred times bigger than France and two hundred times bigger than Great Britain. 

The foreign concessions at treaty ports were areas carved out of existing Chinese cities. They had foreign police and foreign law courts and collected their own taxes, a situation the Qing accepted with little protest, even though most of the population within the concessions continued to be Chinese. At the treaty ports, the presence of the British and Indians was especially strong, and the habits of the British Empire tended to spill over into these cities.

British and American consuls there collected the tariffs themselves, a practice later regularized into a permanent Imperial Maritime Customs staffed at its higher level by Westerners. In addition to recording and collecting tariffs, the customs published annual reports on the outlook for trade at each port and undertook projects to improve communications, such as telegraph and postal systems.

Missionaries often ran orphanages, a “good work” that also helped produce converts, but the Chinese suspected that they were buying babies for nefarious purposes. The volatility of relations btwn Chinese and foreign missionaries led to tragedy in Tianjin on a June day in 1870. French troops had been based there from 1860 to 1863; the French had taken over a former palace for their consulate; and they had built a cathedral at the site of a former Chinese temple.

about 3,000 Protestant missionaries in China, more than half of them women. Although the majority of missionaries devoted themselves to preaching, over the course of the nineteenth century, more and more concentrated on medicine or education, which were better received by the Chinese.

After Japan sank a steamship carrying Chinese troops, both countries declared war. The results proved that the past decade of accelerated efforts to upgrade the military were still not enough. The Japanese went overland to take the Chinese port city of Weihaiwei in Shandong province, then turned the Chinese guns on the Chinese fleet in the bay. This was a defeat not of Chinese weapons but of Chinese organization and strategy.

China sued for peace and sent Li Hongzhang to Japan to negotiate a settlement. Besides a huge indemnity, China agreed to cede Taiwan and Liaodong ( the southern tip of Manchuria) to Japan and to allow Japan to open factories in China.

At the high point of this rush in 1898, it appeared that the European powers might divide China among themselves the way they had recently divided Africa. Russia obtained permission to extend the Trans- Siberian railway across Manchuria to Vladivostok and secured a leasehold over the Liaodong Peninsula.

two most important intellectual leaders to give shape to these feelings were Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, both from Guangdong province. Kang was a committed Confucian, dedicated to the ideals of personal virtue and service to society. He reinterpreted the classics to justify reform, arguing that Confucius had been a reformer, not a mere transmitter as he had portrayed himself in the Analects.

contended that self-strengthening efforts had focused too narrowly on technology and ignored the need for cultural and political change. The examination system should be scrapped and a national school system instituted. China needed a stronger sense of national solidarity and a new type of state in which the people participated in rule.

In Japan, when the special status of the samurai was abolished, samurai had not only joined the new armies in large numbers as officers, but many had successfully switched to other occupations requiring skill or learning. The hereditary military caste of the Qing did not fare as well. Many bannermen became alarmed, not seeing how the banner population could survive without government handouts.

In June the emperor gave Kang a five hour audience. Over the next hundred days, the emperor issued over a hundred decrees on everything from revamping the examination system to setting up national school, banking, postal, and patent systems. He was redesigning the Qing as a constitutional monarchy with modern financial and educational infrastructures. This was a failure.

local grievance concerned the highhanded behavior of Christian missionaries, especially a group of German missionaries who actively interfered in their converts’ lawsuits, claiming the privileges of extraterritoriality for the converts. They also irritated people by forbidding their converts to contribute to traditional village festivals that involved parading statues of the local gods.

They were dubbed “ Boxers” by foreigners because of their martial arts practices. The Boxers also practiced spirit possession, which allowed individuals to achieve direct communication with their gods and gain a sense of personal power.

Cixi, having been told by pro-Boxer Manchus that the European powers wanted her to retire and restore the emperor to the throne, declared war on the eight powers. Although she had repeatedly seen China defeated when it was fighting only one of these powers, she deluded herself into thinking that if the people became sufficiently enraged, they could drive all eight out and solve the foreign problem once and for all.

The foreign powers demanded that the Qing government suppress the attacks on foreigners. Cixi, apparently hoping that the Chinese people, if aroused, could solve her foreign problem for her, did little to stop the Boxers. Eight foreign powers announced that they would send troops to protect missionaries.

negotiations that led to the Boxer Protocol, China had to accept a long list of penalties, including cancellation of the examinations for five years (punishment for gentry collaboration), execution of the officials involved, destruction of forts and railway posts, and payment of a staggering indemnity of 450 million silver dollars.

Better comparisons for the Qing Dynasty in this period are probably the Ottoman and Russian Empires. All three were multiethnic, land-based Eurasian empires, with long experience with mounted horsemen of the steppe and in the case of both the Ottomans and the Qing, currently ruled by groups that claimed this tradition themselves. All three knew how to deal with problems of defending long land borders but were not naval powers.

Longer-term solutions came in the teachings of the peasant sage Ninomiya Sontoku. Sontoku revitalized villages, increasing their population and bringing fields back into production by preaching an ethic of diligence, fortitude, and frugality to repay the bounty of the gods while instituting mutual aid associations to give vil-lagers who had fallen into debt access to low-interest loans. His emphasis on rational planning to wring the most from land and labor demanded steady work habits instilled in men and women alike.

Atsutane and his followers offered a vision of a just social order that largely ignored existing political arrangements. Although they acknowledged shogunal authority and the Confucian principles of social inequality, they sought the wellspring of human virtue in Japan’s ancient past and looked to the monarch as a manifest god who linked the divine and human worlds. Atsutane claimed to be a disciple of Motoori Norinaga, thus putting him in the mainstream of nativist thought. Unlike his teacher, he did not envision the afterlife as a filthy, polluted realm but rather as an invisible world that parallels the visible world.

rural entrepreneurs sought new ways to bolster their prestige. Rather than marry within the village, they sought marriage partners of similar background a day’s walk or more away. They educated themselves; they also educated their daughters to standards beyond what could be achieved by an ordinary cultivator. They studied Chinese philosophy and classical poetry as well as Western science and geography. They took up swordsmanship.

Conditions reached a crisis when poor harvests in the 1830s recalled the famines of the 1780s. Commoners assumed that food shortages owed more to greedy merchants than to crop failures. They turned on village leaders for not offering relief, and they called on the gods of world renewal (yonaoshi) for salva-tion from economic hardship and political ineptitude. Women played an active role, marching with men to protest arbitrary government policies and complaining to rice merchants that hoarding grain threatened the poor with starvation.

Raised in the Confucian tradition that deemed bureaucratic work a service to the people, Oshio had also studied Wang Yangming, who argued that at time of crisis, a man had to use his intuition, not institutional norms, to guide his behavior. In 1836, Oshio petitioned the Osaka city magistrate to save the starving. When the magistrate refused, Oshio sold his books to buy food. In a last desperate effort, he issued a manifesto that charged shogunal officials with corruption and led a rural army against the city. A quarter of Osaka burned before shogunal troops caught up with him, and he committed suicide.

In 1838 a long-suffering rural woman named Nakayama Miki was possessed by a spirit who deemed her to be the “shogun of heaven” and the mouthpiece for the true and original god of salvation. According to the god’s divine wisdom (tenri), the shogun and daimyo were far too removed from daily life to aid the people; instead, the people should trust in the god of world re-newal and work together, offering mutual assistance in time of need. They indulged in novels that depicted the immediate world of human feelings, such as Jippensha Ikku’s travelogues featuring an irreverent pair, Kita and Yaji, who poked fun at self- important samurai, stole when they could, seduced serving maids, and laughed at farts.

Russians were the first foreigners to encroach on Japan. During the eighteenth century, they started to trade with the Ainu in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka. In 1793, Adam Laxman, a delegate to Catherine II, tried to open relations between Russia and Japan. He got as far as Nagasaki, only to be rebuffed by Matsudaira Sadanobu, who insisted that respect for his ancestors prohibited him from initiating new foreign relations.

shogunate decided to annex Hokkaido and Sakhalin. Its reach exceeded its grasp; it did not have the forces to defend either. Russians again asked for permission to trade at Nagasaki in 1804. When that was not forthcoming, officers attacked trading posts on Sakhalin and the Kurils in 1806 and 1807.

In two separate incidents in 1824, British whaling ships raided villages on the coast north of Edo and southern Kyushu. The first village belonged to the Mito domain, home to one of the shogun’s relatives, the xenophobic Tokugawa Nariaki. The second was located in Satsuma, the powerful outside (tozama) domain that dominated the Ryukyus.

With the exception of Dutch ships allowed at Nagasaki, all foreign ships, regardless of the circumstances, were to be driven off without hesitation. This order announced that the shogunate was closing the country (sakoku) to the West, its first truly isolationist policy.

Perry treated the shogunate’s exclusion order with disdain, and he refused to shift anchorage until he had handed over a letter from President Millard Fillmore addressed to the monarch. He paraded his men, opened his gunports to expose his cannons, and announced that he would return the next year for a reply. This time he had six ships under his command, having commandeered two more in Hong Kong.

Perry brought gifts that displayed the wonders of the Industrial Revolution— a telegraph using Morse code and a quarter size steam locomotive with carriages and track. Sailors in blackface put on a minstrel show. Men and women flocked to see the strange black ships with their steam stacks and guns.

In 1856, Townsend Harris arrived as the first U. S. consul at Shimoda, to the consternation of shogunal officials, who had never expected a barbarian to live on Japan’s sacred soil. A failed businessman in the China trade, Harris was determined to sign a commercial treaty with Japan. Realizing Shimoda’s isolation, he bullied Japanese officials to allow him to negotiate in Edo.

Komei rejected the treaty, urged the shogun to consult the leading daimyo, and demanded the foreigners’ expulsion. When the shogunate signed the treaty against Komei’s wishes, it was considered treasonous. People from many walks of life began to collect and debate information on political affairs. By ignoring prohibitions on discussion of contemporary events and creating a new public political realm, they helped bring about what hindsight has deemed as the last days of the shogunate.

Sakuma Shozan argued for a proactive policy of seeking advanced Western military technology in order to strengthen Japan and of fusing Western science to Japan’s Confucian ethical base. Only by opening Japan to trade could it achieve the knowledge and tools needed to compete in the emerging world order.

Tokugawa Nariaki believed that allowing trade with the West would weaken Japan both materially, in that Japan would lose precious metals in exchange for fripperies, and spiritually, because it would be infected by Christianity. The only way to revive Japan’s martial spirit was to fight, even though fighting meant certain defeat.

In 1854 he opened a small school where he taught public policy under the rubric sonno joi ( revere the monarch and expel the barbarian). By this he meant that the monarch should participate in policy decisions and the foreigners must be driven off.

Broadsheets (kawaraban) reported gossip on the treaty negotiations. They circulated primarily in urban areas, where they could be easily and anonymously sold, but travelers also took them back to villages. A few commoners presented plans for coastal defense to their daimyo for forwarding to the shogun.

They appointed a vassal daimyo, Ii Naosuke, regent for Iemochi and chief senior councilor. Ii purged his daimyo opponents and arrested, exiled, or executed over one hundred men employed as agents by daimyo and court nobles.

Angry at the execution of men they revered, they committed their lives to the politics of direct action. Their deed galvanized public opinion against Ii by deeming him a traitor for having executed men of high purpose (shishi) whose only aim was to serve the monarch.

The shogunate abandoned its authoritarian stance for a more conciliatory posture. It proposed a union of court and military ( kobu gattai) that would give important tozama and collateral daimyo advisory positions on foreign affairs and reinstated daimyo purged by Ii. It sealed the deal by having Shogun Iemochi wed Komei’s younger half-sister, Kazunomiya, in return for a promise to expel the barbarians.

When shishi tried to capture the palace in the eighth month of 1863, planning to place Komei at the head of an army to unite western Japan under the slogan of “Restore monarchical rule,” Satsuma allied with shogunal forces to drive them from Kyoto. Many fled to Choshu. The daimyo of Tosa forced shishi in his domain to leave or commit suicide. Choshu shishi returned to Kyoto with supporters from other domains and rural militia in tow. Once again, the shogunate routed them.

But how significant was the expansion of a public political sphere based on the discussion and exchange of information given that 60 percent of the population was illiterate? Most commoners remained bystanders. Historians who emphasize that commoners remained quiescent during the years leading to the Meiji Restoration and that therefore it cannot be deemed a revolution from below overlook a similar inertia in the ruling class.

In the summer of 1866, rising unemployment, crop failures, inflation, and shogunal efforts to tax trade created the conditions for the most widespread riots in Edo history, particularly in the shogun’s stronghold of eastern Japan.

The shogunate hoped to use new taxes levied on foreign trade to subsidize its military modernization program. It imported thousands of weapons through Yokohama and drilled its retainer band in rifle companies supplemented by rural recruits. It sent missions abroad. The first in 1860 signed a friendship treaty with the United States; subsequent envoys emphasized the study of foreign technology. In 1861 it opened a naval training school at Hyogo. In 1865 it started an ironworks at Yokohama and a shipyard at Yokosuka.

In the eighth month of 1867, a new popular movement swept the coast from the inland sea to Edo. Claiming that amulets inscribed with the name of the sun goddess that portended a prosperous future had fallen from heaven, men and women danced in the streets chanting, “ Ain’t it great?” ( Ee ja nai ka?). When the movement reached eastern Japan, dancers threw stones at foreigners to drive out barbarian demons and rehearsed a mock funeral for the shogunate.

A better alternative was to unite around the new emperor. Although retainers died, Yoshinobu and the daimyo of Aizu survived to take their places in the new imperial peerage and join their efforts to the task of strengthening state and economy to compete in the new world order. Hirata disciples and other imperial loyalists rushed to offer their ser-vices to the new government; people in Edo watched warily as their old masters were replaced with new.

When the shogunate collapsed in 1867, it left behind a dynamic economy, a pool of able administrators, and a population well educated for its time. Also bequeathed to the fledgling government was a set of treaties with the Great Powers that recast Japan’s relations with the outside world and opened the country to foreign trade, though not on terms favorable to Japan.

amorphous group of samurai from Satsuma and Choshu, plus a few activist Kyoto aristocrats and imperial loyalists from other domains, they had diverse interests and goals. Their first pronouncement came in the Oath of 1868, offered by the emperor in the company of court nobles and daimyo to the gods of heaven and earth. 

To eliminate the redundancies of 270 domain administrations and centralize tax collection, the oligarchs in 1871 abolished the domains and established prefectures. They started the process of consolidating 170,000 towns and villages into larger administrative units with a new hierarchy of local officials and inaugurated a household registration system whereby each household head had to establish a place of legal residence and inform the government of births, deaths, marriages, and divorces in his family.

Both farmers and shizoku opposed conscription. The ordinance used the term “ blood tax,” meaning that all citizens should willingly sacrifice themselves for their country. Farmers who took it literally assumed that the government wanted their blood.

Publicity generated by the promise of a national assembly and constitution stimulated responses that coalesced into the Popular Rights Movement. Shizoku, village officials, rural entrepreneurs, journalists, intellectuals, and prefectural assemblymen held meetings and circulated petitions for an immediate national assembly that collected hundreds of thou-sands of signatures. Oligarchs responded to the Popular Rights Movement by issuing increasingly draconian peace preservation laws.

The Meiji Constitution defined institutions estab-lished before its promulgation. In 1878 the military General Staff was made directly responsible to the emperor, bypassing the War Ministry run by bureau-crats.

Oligarchs promoted economic reform and industrialization. They appropriated the arms-related industries already established by the domains and the shogunate. Some of the industries came under state control to supply the military; others were sold to cronies at favorable terms. Iwasaki Yataro founded Mitsubishi enterprises on the maritime shipping line he acquired from Tosa and expanded it with low-interest government loans.