Term
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Definition
| 13.7 Ga ago (billion. Calculated via rate of expansion of universe |
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Term
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Definition
| why the universe is shaped the way it is & explains co-planar orbit of planets. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thins in the middle; equatorial bulge |
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Term
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Definition
| Formed 4.6 Ga ago. Nothing HERE is that old. ANy rock that old came here. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Collisions (AKA cold accretion). Composition depends on distance from sun. |
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Term
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Definition
| A collision; eventually will run into something.. Either fuses or destroys. |
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Term
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Definition
| generates heat; will form internal layers over time. At time zero, earth was producing 5x more heat |
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Term
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Definition
| temperatures reach a high (1000C) due to gravity constriction. Materials segregate. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Gravitational contraction |
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Definition
| Raises internal temperature (>1000C) |
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Term
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Definition
| Fe and No sink to core.Lighter elements float to form in crust. Radioactive elements concentrate |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| gravity kept gasses. h20, H2, C0, C02. |
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Term
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Definition
| produced 02, around 2 Ga, 02 was ambient in atmosphere |
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Term
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Definition
| since the beginning, not liquid until 4 Ga |
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Term
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Definition
| Sedimentary rocks from 4 Ga |
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Term
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Definition
Partial melting
Weathering - destroys mafic, enhances felsic crust composition |
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Term
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Definition
| darker rock, rich in iron & magnesium. Rusts at surface. |
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Term
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Definition
| rich in silica; doesn't break down or react at surface. More stable. |
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Term
| Majority of earth's crust |
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Definition
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Term
| Additional mass to the earth |
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Definition
| No significant mass. 50 x 10^6 gained a year from meteorites. Lose some too. |
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Term
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Definition
| Crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, core. |
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Term
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Definition
| HOW DOES IT BEHAVE. Lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, inner core, outer core. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| upper mantle beneath the asthenosphere and lithosphere |
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Term
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Definition
| Crust, Mantle, Core. No division. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inner is different than outer, so they try and switch places (reversing). happens a lot. |
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Term
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Definition
| Solid Fe & Ni, increasing in size. |
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Term
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Definition
| Liquid Fe & Ni. Defined by changes in seismic waves. Convection = earth's magnetic field. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Upper lithosphere (oceanic & continental, base (moho) |
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Term
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Definition
| Mafic (Fe & Ni. Plastic behavior, lower part contains mesosphere, slow, super hot. |
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Term
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Definition
| Uppermost part of mantle + crust. Cold and rigid, elastic. Mostly mafic. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stretch and return to old shape. Temporary deformation. Lithosphere. |
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Term
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Definition
| deformation is permanent; won't return to old shape. Mantle. |
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Term
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Definition
| Crust. Coldest and most brittle. Upper 100KM. 10Km in oceans. |
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Term
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Definition
| thinner and more dense; more mafic. 10KM thick. |
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Term
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Definition
| lighter & very thick. 100Km thick. More felcic. Near the top. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mohorovic discontinuity. Compositional change. Reflected seismic waves and amplification of seismic waves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Fundamental tool to get a history and determine cause of geological events. Uses backtracking. |
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Term
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Definition
| Relative ages; rock on top can give date for rock on bottom. Principle of superposition. |
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Term
| Principle of superposition |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
MORE definite dates (every 30 years...)
Quantitative; primarily determined via radiometric dating. Uranium -> lead. |
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Term
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Definition
| 7 million years; we don't understand a lot of processes yet |
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Term
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Definition
| bacon; observe, hypothesize, experiment. Hypotheses get upgraded to theories, then laws. |
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Term
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Definition
| smallest unit of chemical element. Can be a lot of things, arrangement determines what. UNDERSTANDING WEAKNESSES WILL ILLUSTRATE WEAKNESSES IN MATERIAL. |
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Term
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Definition
| Electrons, protons, neutrons |
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Term
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Definition
| Same # of protons, different # of neutrons |
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Term
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Definition
| contains more than 2 elements in fixed proportions |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Most common elements on Earth |
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Definition
| Oxygen and Silicon. Most rocks picked up have silicon. |
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Term
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Definition
| Aluminim, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, Sodium |
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Term
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Definition
| SiO4; silicates. Super stable, not easily broken from each other. breaks off metal easily. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inorganic, naturally occurring solid. Crystalline, fixed or fixed variable limits of composition. |
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Term
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Definition
| Impurity; easily changed. |
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Term
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Definition
| How mineral looks when crushed. Only useful for metallic minerals. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1-10 hardness scale. 1-3 moved by water. 567 is most common. harder is more stable. |
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Term
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Definition
| HOW the rock breaks; same every time. How many planes of cleavage? |
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Term
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Definition
| WILL break, but don't know where. Breaks at weakest section... |
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Term
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Definition
| Classic shape ; salt is cubic |
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Term
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Definition
| darker color means iron; rusting. |
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Term
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Definition
| exactly the same chemical composition, SAME structure. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| largest, contain Si & O; divided based on crystal structures. |
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Term
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Definition
| composed of one or more elements, does NOT contain Si. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Silicate group. Most abundant material in crust. Al, O, Si...
3D framework. Ceramics.
has cleavage |
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Term
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Definition
| Silicate group. Fe and Mg. Chain/Ring. Black, brown, green. Weather poorly. Mafix. |
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Term
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Definition
| Silicate grouping. Sheets that absorb water. NOT a mineral. Floats |
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Term
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Definition
| NON-silicate. beaches & reefs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-silicate. mobile in groundwater. gypsum. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-silicates. Found with iron. Polluting. |
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Term
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Definition
| non-silicate. rusting, magnetite, sought after ores. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-silicate. Salts. LOTS in Alberta |
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Term
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Definition
| non-silicates. Gold, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| Solid, cohesive aggregate of crystals or grains of one or more minerals. NOT volcanic glass (non-crystalline) and coal. |
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Term
|
Definition
igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic |
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Term
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Definition
| Formed by cooling & solidification of molten material. Isotropic. Non-porous (except pyroclastic) |
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Term
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Definition
| Intrusive (cools inside earth). Plutonic rocks. Slower cooling; larger crystals. |
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Term
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Definition
| Extrusive (cooled outside earth). MORE weaknesses. Volcanic. Cools fast; smaller crystals. |
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Term
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Definition
| Came out a volcano. Air bubbles. Weak. |
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Term
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Definition
| internal patterns of a rock; orientation & size of grains/crystals INSIDE. |
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Term
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Definition
felsic to mafic. In between = intermediate.
Type depends on proportion of free quartz, Feldspars, Fe-Mg minerals. |
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Term
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Definition
| type of igneous rock; cannot see individual crystals |
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Term
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Definition
| type of igneous rock; can see individual crystals |
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Term
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Definition
| type of igneous rock; started cooling and was shot up |
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Term
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Definition
| type of igneous rock; shot up, cooled too fast, cannot form crystals. |
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Term
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Definition
| type of igneous rock; shot up from volcano, formed air bubbles/vesicles. |
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Term
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Definition
made from another rocks, organisms or chemical changes. Carried in a fluid, deposited and lithified, or precipitated.
Clastic and Chemical |
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Term
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Definition
| transformed from sediment to rock |
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Term
|
Definition
type of sedimentary rock; mechanical breakup of other rocks. Named after clast = grain size.
ANISOTROPIC (will not break the same way, but can find weakpoints (where material meets)). porous. Generally hard. 5.5-7 |
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Term
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Definition
type of sedimentary rock; crystals form from precipitation or growth from solution. may have large biological components. mobile. Organic or inorganic, isotropic-anisotropic, soft 2-4, soluble.
SENSITIVE TO WATER AND PH. We build with them. |
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Term
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Definition
| round against other grains |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| type of sedimentary rock; congolmerate or breccia rock. |
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Term
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Definition
| type of sedimentary rock; sandstone |
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Term
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Definition
| type of sedimentary rock; silstone, shale |
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Term
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Definition
| type of sedimentary rock; claystone, musdtone, shale |
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Term
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Definition
| type of sedimentary rock; skeletal remains or excretions. Limestone or chalk. |
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Term
| Inorganic chemical deposit |
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Definition
| type of sedimentary rock; precipitation due to evaporation. |
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Term
|
Definition
made from pre existing rocks; recrystallized without melting, crystals got bigger/rearranged/recomposed. MOSTLY anisotropic, can be iso.
Some characteristics of old rock remain.
Crystaline/BENT LAYERS.
hardish
elongated
NON-POROUS |
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Term
| Types of metamorphic rocks |
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Definition
Caused by changes in pressure or tempertaure, buried.
Contact or regional. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cooling of a plutonic body (solidified magma chamber). 100's of meters. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stress and heating related to plate tectonics. 100's of KMs. |
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Term
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Definition
| preferred orientation in elongation; is a weakpoint. |
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Term
|
Definition
Transition of a rock into another type via processes:
Weathering, sedimentation, lithification (sedimentary)
Heat & Pressure causing recrystallizing and deformation (metamorphic.
Melting and crystallization (igneous) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Large scale movement of the lithosphere (crust) or asthenosphere (partly molten upper mantle). WHERE THINGS GO WRONG. |
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Term
| Plate Tectonic theories/history |
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Definition
Snider 1855 - Puzzle idea
Wegener 1912 - Continental drift
Du Toit 1937 - Gondwanaland, glacial deposit, ice movment |
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Term
| Visual evidence of plat tectonics |
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Definition
| 99% of continents fit, similar environment across oceans, marine fossils far from ocean. |
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Term
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Definition
| Magnetic minerals align themselves with the magnetic point of earth when at the curie point |
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Term
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Definition
| 60's, Irving. Alternating strips of magnetic north on ocean floor. Cracked floor, magma pours up, aligns to current magnetic north. |
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Term
|
Definition
oceanic = 200 Ma
continental = 3.96 Ga |
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Term
|
Definition
| opening and closing of the oceans. made super continents. Have had at least 3 of these. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hot material moves up, little comes through the crust, rest goes to the side. Gravity pulls heavy plate down. |
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Term
| Movement rate & directions |
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Definition
| plates move around 2-3 CM a year. hawaii like places move 11. |
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Term
|
Definition
divergent
transform
convergent |
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Term
|
Definition
| move apart due to mantle uprising. Tensile thinning, lots of volcanoes in upper 12 KM. Creates new crust. ICELAND. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Plates move past each other; shearing displacement. ripping. LOTS of shallow earthquakes, mostly moderate. No volcanoes. SAN ANDREAS |
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Term
| Convergent plate boundary |
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Definition
Plates bump into each other.
Denser plate subducts; deep trenches, volcanoes, earthquakes.
Lighter plate will obduct; build mountains. |
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Term
|
Definition
continental-continental = butt heads, huge mountains, volcanoes are hard to reach surface.
oceanic-oceanic - form islands and volcanoes
oceanic-continental - classic; makes rocky mountains. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sudden slippage (rupture) along fault zones in response to stress. Seismic slip |
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Term
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Definition
| Applied force. 3 types. Compressive, tensile, shearing. |
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Term
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Definition
| squishing, subduction zone, goes upwards & makes mountains. |
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Term
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Definition
| pulling apart; usually applied stress over time. Break is fast. Thinning of material. |
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Term
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Definition
| sliding past, parallel or oblique. San Andrea |
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Term
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Definition
| result of stress. Deformation is the observable part. Will be plastic, elastic, or a rupture. IS measurable. |
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Term
| Low Temperature and Pressure |
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Definition
| near surface, elastic, ruptures. |
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Term
| High Temperature and Pressure |
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Definition
| Usually deep, 100KM+, long term stress, plastic. Rupture. If cold enough. |
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Term
| Main Mechanism of Earthquakes |
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Definition
| Reid's elastic rebound theory. San Francisco 1906. |
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Term
|
Definition
Elastic deformation prior to failure.
Sudden displacement along fault.
Elastic rebound as rick snaps back to previous dimensions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Movement; gradual. material isn't sticking together. Means stress is being released. Non violent. AKA aseismic slip. |
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Term
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Definition
| AKA = focus. Point on the fault of the first movement. Normally far down. Energy goes in ALL directions, but not necessarily equally. |
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Term
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Definition
| Surface ABOVE the focus. Not guaranteed to be where the energy is. |
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Term
|
Definition
Surface intraplate
All plate boundaries |
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Term
| Shallow focus earthquakes |
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Definition
Within & below 100KM of the lithoshere
Compressional boundaries (subduction zones) |
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Term
|
Definition
Body (P & S waves). Travel from focus to recorder through earth's guts.
Surface waves (Rayhleigh & Love). Travel from epicenter to recorder via surface. |
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Term
|
Definition
| PRIMARY. PUSH. COMPRESSIONAL. Travel through anything. Fastest. Slowed down by gas and liquid. Bounce. |
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Term
|
Definition
| SECODNARY. SHAKE. SHEAR. More of a wiggle. Slower. ONLY travel through solids. Used to map oil/gas. Greater distance between P and S; further away the quake. |
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Term
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Definition
| Vertical motion, rolling of the ground. |
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Term
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Definition
| Side to side; PROBLEM. Rip buildings. Only affect near epicenter. |
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Term
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Definition
| Concerned with direction the quake came from. Tsunami warning. |
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Term
| Current Earthquake detection |
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Definition
| Ground displacement measurement. Measure vertical, E-W, N-S on 3 different machines. Lag of P and S triangulates center. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Quantitative. Richter and Moment Magnitude scale. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Qualitative. How bad did it shake? Observations of the effects. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Quantified measure of strength of an earthquake. Logarithmic. largest wave amplitude. PROBLEM is a huge # wind up as 7.x. not useful over 7. Only measures energy passing through things. |
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Term
|
Definition
measure energy released at sight of slippage.
Measure rigidity, area of fault, amount of slip. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Depends on building materials/codes, POV, geology, coincidental weather, response time of help |
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Term
| Charleston USA earthquake |
|
Definition
| Intensity got higher, and lower, and higher with distance. Ground material matters. |
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Term
| Primary effects of Earthquake |
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Definition
| Effects CAUSED by the actual earthquake. Violent ground motions. |
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Term
| Secondary effects of Earthquake |
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Definition
| Effects TRIGGERED by earthquake. lasts longer. Tsunami, Landslides, Fire, Liquefacation, Disease |
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Term
|
Definition
| Disruption and displacement of sea floor. 1000kph. Increases in frequency as approaching shore. High magnitude =/= mean tsunami |
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Term
|
Definition
Indian ocean Tsunami Warning System. Monitors sea level data and the rate of lateral change
Issue warnings, including expected time of arrival and possible wave
heights
Only works if the tsunami originates far enough away |
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Term
|
Definition
| Usually more damaging than the quake itself. Water lines are often broken. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Some material is prone to slipping, quake is just the trigger. Most ground isn't "Stable". |
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Term
|
Definition
| Volcanic island that had coastline collapse. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Change in arrangement of water in structure of clay/sand. Shaking makes a slurry. Common in marine clays (they are held together by salt). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Sand from below mixes with water, becomes less dense, floats up. Rolls downhill. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Results from loss of sanitation, shelter, contamination, |
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Term
|
Definition
| With pattern recognition, we can estimate when events make an earthquake likely. |
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Term
| Risk assessment principles |
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Definition
| Assume stresses act continuously. Faults with lots of seismic activity ARE safer. Look for seismic gaps/earthquake cycle. |
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Term
|
Definition
Compare changes to normal background noise.
Precursor phenomena:
Drops in seismic waves
Uplift/tilting ground
Increased radon in water
Geophysical changes
Anomalous animals
Increase in ground temperature. |
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|
Term
| Controlling strain release |
|
Definition
#1 fluid injection - lubricate fault system. Rocky mountain chemical pumping.
#2 Explosives - release small quakes. Or HUGE ones. Liability issues. |
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Term
|
Definition
| doesn't shake buildings as much |
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Term
|
Definition
| Remove excess water. Want SOME. too much is the issue. |
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|
Term
| Slack in linear structures |
|
Definition
| Accommodate seismic activity. Pipelines that will move. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Depends on geography. SiO2, Fe, Mg, others. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| determines melt type, melt viscosity, gas release ability. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| rock types determine what melts. Little bits will melt and head towards low pressure. |
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Term
|
Definition
| More SiO2 makes for cooler, more viscous magma that hardens faster, and traps gas. |
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|
Term
| Places to avoid during volcano |
|
Definition
Areas with silicate rich magma (continental & water rich material)
Subduction zones
Continental hot spots/mantle plumes |
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Term
|
Definition
| Stationary locations in planet; plates move over top. Possible sites of heat making radioactive elements. |
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|
Term
| Types of mafic volcanic eruptions |
|
Definition
| Fissure, shield, cinder cones |
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Term
|
Definition
| Runnier (less silica), so less volatile. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Majority of all volcanic activity; occurs along spreaking ridges and drifts, low hazard/risk. |
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Term
|
Definition
Is a fracture(s). Multiple exit points; one main vent fed by multiple feeders. No guarantee WHERE it will erupt.
Not very viscous, flows downhill easily, covers a lot of area.
Kilawaya; lots of activity. Watch at night to see activity.
Hawaii is actually 10KM high and 100KM across! |
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Term
|
Definition
Found with various compositions
Common with gaseous mafic lavas
Small (generally <400 m high)
Fairly symmetrical, steep sided (~35°) cones
don't really hold lava. Pimples on the island. SHORT LIVED features. Lava in area is viscous and gassy.
ONE vent. Plugs up itself. Pressure blows it up. |
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Term
|
Definition
Shallow dipping slopes
Thick and spatially extensive
Lots of lava, extends over a large period of time. They formed the hawaiian islands.
Affect the climate. |
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Term
|
Definition
Is a fracture(s). Multiple exit points; one main vent fed by multiple feeders. No guarantee WHERE it will erupt.
Not very viscous, flows downhill easily, covers a lot of area. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Felsic, intermediate. High, steeped. Made of volcanic rubble. Cools rapidle. |
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Term
|
Definition
AKA stratovolcanoes
Intermediate to felsic lavas
Steep sided, large and explosive
Layered
Related to subduction zone
Snow and ice. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Large, negative features
NOT restricted to volcano type or composition
Eruption is sudden and often catastrophic
Formed by one of two methods: 1)Phreatic eruption
2)Collapse
Do NOT erupt frequently. When they do erupt, it is bad ass. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Explosion caused by water boiling in pores and fractures
Generally occurs in volcanoes adjacent to or surrounded by water
Example: Krakatau, Indonesia 1883
All eruptions are phreatic, technically. |
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Term
|
Definition
Rapid emptying of the magma chamber during eruption
Chamber collapses Example: Mt. Mazama, Oregon ~6800 BP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– Lava
– Pyroclastic material
– Lahars*
– Toxic gases
– Phreatic eruptions
– Earthquakes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Define risk zones based on history |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Hot, fragmented, welded or solidified volcanic material
Range from ash (1/16 mm) to bombs and blocks (house-sized)
Eruption can cause shockwaves
Types:
Volcanic ash eruption
Volcanic ash flow (Nuées ardentes) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Mainly ash and dust (<1/16 mm) of rock fragments and glass
Very soft; pulverized glass and rocks. Gets everywhere.
Just like lime; mixes with water and becomes concrete. Is
super acidic. Slippery. Super heavy when wet. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
AKA: nuees ardentes; grey eruptions
• Hot, dense clouds of ash and gases
• Speeds can easily exceed 100 km/hr
• Temperatures often >1000°C
• Unpredictable
• Generally associated with composite volcanoes
most common death of volcanologists. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Both a primary and secondary event. Causes flooding
elsewhere, as it displaces water.
Happens when you have sources of water near the
eruption. Downhill; follows any drainage patters.
SUPER thick. Will pick up stuff. Things float really well;
like buildings.
Primary = melting snow and ice
Secondary = ash has fallen and rain begins |
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Term
|
Definition
Rare to kill; mostly bad luck. Do not generate enough to kill people.
Generally dense like CO and CO2 .
Not usually a problem
Build up in water may be a hazard |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Gasses & particles of ash. Parts of
volcanic national parks are often closed from vog |
|
|
Term
| Secondary Volcanic effects |
|
Definition
Indirectly caused by the eruption
Usually atmospheric, but there are others!
Short or long-term
Duration depends on layer of atmosphere or size of land area
affected
Severity depends on amount of material ejected
Localized or widespread |
|
|
Term
| Volcanic 2ndary atmospheric effects |
|
Definition
If in the stratosphere:
Affects are global and long-term
Affects global temperatures (blocks sunlight)
If in the troposphere:
Local temperature changes and effects
Short-term (<3) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
SO2 from sulphide gases emitted during the eruption
In troposphere: removed as acid rain
In stratosphere: stays for years
Can circle the globe
May cause ozone depletion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ash with water (melted snow and ice) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ash with rain from volcano |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
3, now 4 ways
Active, Dormant, Extinct, Erupting.
Active - last 10,000
Dormant - not in last 10,000. CAN still erupt. Long wait.
Extinct - Unlikely to ever erupt again. Cinder cone… ON TOP OF something active. |
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Term
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Definition
swarms in earthquakes. Sudden increase.
harmonics; two signatures. A type is rocks
breaking. B type is the harmonic; often masked,
sound of magma moving. |
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