1. Observation/data collection
2. Formulate a hypothesis
3. Test hypothesis
4. Evaluate the results
5. Formulate a theory
6. Formuate a law or principle

Lithosphere

Biosphere

Hydrosphere

Atmosphere

Example: Tsunami-

Earthquake - Lithosphere

Kills people and animals - Biosphere

Occurs in ocean - Hydrosphere

Can create fires which emits smoke into the air - Atmosphere

1. Solid inne core
2. Liquid outer core
3. Mantle
4. Asthenosphere
5. Crust/Lithosphere

Oceanic crust - the thnner, denser, and younger part of Earth's crust, underlying the ocean basins and characterized by Basalt.

Continental crust - the older, thicker, and less dense part of Earth's crust; the bulkof Earth's land masses and predominantly Granite.

1. naturally occurring solid
2. formed by inorganic processes
3. have a crystalline structure
4. have a specific chemical composition

• Luster - how shiny it is (metallic/nonmetallic,vitreous,pearly,greasy)
• Hardness - resistance to scratching
• Cleavage - breakage surface
• Color and Streak - the color of the streak on an unglazed porcelain surface

1. Igneous - Granite
2. Sedimentary - Sandstone
3. Metamorphic - Gneiss

1. Extrusive igneous rock - Volcanic rocks - Lava
2. Intrusive ingeous rock - Plutonic rock - Magma

• Bimodal in grain size
• rocks that consist of large mineral grains embedded in an aphanitic matrix

1. Polar ice sheets (74% of the Earth's fresh water - Frozen)
2. Underground (98.5% of the Earth's unfrozen fresh water)

• every stream or river has a channel
• main channel, point bars and cut banks
• headwaters - source of the stream
• mouth - where the stream empties into a lake or the sea

• Straight - occurs in relatively short stretches and usually with high gradients and near the headwaters
• Meandering - low gradient and typically in the downstream part of a stream system
• Braided - variations in flow over time 

• Gradient - steepness of a stream channel
• Discharge - amount of water passing by a point on the channel's bank during a unit of time
• Load - suspended and dissolved sediment carried by a stream

1. Floodplains - relatively flat valley floor adjacent to a stream channel
2. Alluvial fans - develops where a stream draining a steep upland region suddenly emerges onto the floor of a much broader lowland valley
3. Deltas - stream flows into a standing body of water

• A water table is the top surface of the saturated zone.
• The zone of aeration (vadose zone) lies above the water table and the saturated zone lies below.

What is the evidence that led to the acceptance of Wegener's theory?

• The puzzle-piece argument
• Matching rocks and fossils

1. Conduction - the process by which heat moves though a solid body without deforming it
2. Convection - a form of heat transfer in which hot material circulates from hotter to colder regions, loses its heat, and then repeats the cycle

What are hot spots, how are they caused, and what are the results?

Earthquakes occur as a result of the motion of rocks along a fault. The focus is where the motion starts (underground); the epicenter is the place on the surface that lies directly above the focus. 

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Stress is the force acting on a surface, per unit area, which may be greater in certain directions than others.

Pressure is a particular kind of stress in which forces acting on a body are the same in all directions

• Hawaiian eruption - low viscosity and gradual flow build up -> shield volcano
• Strombolian eruption - more viscous than hawaiian and creates a fountain -> cinder/splatter cone
• Vulcanian/Plinian eruption - explosive/violent, pyroclastic flows, ash columns -> strato volcanoes

• High silica content -> more viscous -> gases have a hard time escaping -> explosive eruption
• Low silica content -> low viscosity -> gases escape easily -> non-explosive

Crater - the funnel-shaped depression from which gas, tephra and lava are ejected

Caldera - a larger depression, steep-walled, roughly circular; formed when the magma chamber collapses 

• Bulging - suggests that the reservoir of magma is growing
• Outgassing/temperature change
• Seismic activity

Name the plutons.

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1. Batholith
2. Stock
3. Sill
4. Laccolith
5. Dikes
6. Xenoliths

• Relative age - the age of a rock layer, fossil or other natura feature relative to another feature
• Numerical age - the age when a rock layer or natural feature was formed, in years before the present

1. Law of original horizontality
2. Principle of stratigraphic superposition
3. Principle of lateral continuity
4. Principle of cross-cutting replationships

1. Eons - 4 eons - Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic
2. Eras - eon broken down into 3 shorter units - Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic
3. Periods - eras divided into shorter units - divisions were made on the basis of fossils and extinctions - ex: Cambrian Period 
4. Epochs - periods split into smaller units - defined according to the percentage of their fossils that are represented by sill-living species - ex: Holocene Epoch

Surf - the "broken" turbulent water found between a line of breakers and the shore

• increasingly shallow seafloor interferes with the wave motion and distorts its shape
• height of the wave increases and its length decreases
• front of the wave is in shallower water and is steeper than the rear
• eventually, front becomes too steep to support advancing wave and as the rear partkeeps moving forward, the wave collapses, or breaks

• Hard structure
• typically made up of coral
• found in shallow, tropical, salt water

• between 18°C and 30°C
• shallow, clear water
• normal salt levels
• generally between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn

• mixture of various gases
• envelope of air held in place by Earth's gravity

• can substantially reduce ozone concentrations
• moves up to the oxone layer, decomposes to form chlorine oxide (ClO)
• ClO attacks ozone, converting it to ordinary oxygen

Relative humidity - compares the water vapor present in the air to the maximum amount it can carry at that temperature

Specific humidity - actual quantity of water vapor carried by a parcel of air

• Absorbed by the the lithosphere
• Can be scattered by gas molecules, dust or other particles in the atmosphere
• Absorbed by molecules and particles
• Reflected off of clouds
• Absorbed by clouds

• The fraction of solar energy reflected from the Earth back into space. 
• A measure of the reflectivity of the Earth's surface.
• Light/bright surfaces reflect more sunlight 
• Dark surfaces absorb sunlight

1. Cirrus - thin & wispy
2. Cumulus - puffy
3. Lenticular - lens-shaped
4. Stratus - layered

• Orographic - moist air is forced over a mountain barrier
• Convectional - whem warm, moist air is heated at the ground surface, rises, cools and condenses to form water droplets, raindrops, and eventually, rainfall
• Cyclonic - air is forced upward through the movement of air masses; usually occurs during cyclones
• Convergence - air currents coming from different directions converge and air "piles up" and is forced upward

• When convection continues strongly, air can become unstable, creating dense cumulonimbus clouds or thunderstorms
• Environmental conditions for thunderstorms: very warm, moist air & environmental temperature laspe rate

• Divergent plate boundary - sea floor spreading- rift valley - igneous rock
• Convergent plate boundary - subduction zones - volcanoes/mountain ranges - metamorphic and igneous rocks
• Transform plate boundaries - fracturing - more  common on the ocean floor - metamorphic rock (due to pressure)

Describe the beach protection structures called "groins"

How do the work and what problems might they cause?

• Groin - low wall built into the water at a right angle to the shoreline
• acts as a check on the rate of beach drift b/c it traps sand carried to it along the shore
• erosion tends to occur on the downdrift side, where the beach sand is not being replenished

Nonconformity – different rock types together

Disconformity – gap of time is missing 

Angular unconformity – tilted strata

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• Groundwater – in the ground – infiltrated water
• Aquifer – completely filled permeable rock
• Include:

1. Zone of aeration
2. Water table
3. Zone of saturation
4. Permeability – ability to pump water at a rate that can sustain people

Sea arch - cave that has been eroded through

Sea stack - too much erosion on a sea arch and the top of the arch collapses and leaves a column  standing

Erosional formations (undercutting) from water 

Form at the mouth of rivers

Fans out

Low velocity

• A layer of O3 that acts as a UV filter
• Absorbs incoming UV radiation and breaks up the O₃ into O₂ and O

• Condensation of water vapor
• Aerosols, dust particles, particulates, salt sprays

Fossils

Tree rings

Ice cores

Tropical weather

Hot air rises

Mammals are descended from a class of reptiles. Increased in diversity. Rise in Mammals is due to what?

Most waves are produced by

Vitreous and pearly are examples of...

Rock w/ vesicles

This is a dark, mafic, igneous rock found in the ocean

Magma first cools big crystals underground – erupts to produce small crystals

Extrusive igneous rock forms from the _______ cooling of lava result in the formation of ______ crystals

RAPID

SMALL

When air rises, it _______ and tempurature _______ and pressure ________.

EXPANDS

DECREASES

DECREASES

Isotopes of the same element have what kind of atomic number and what kind of mass number?

SAME – atomic number

DIFFERENT – mass

Heating and cooling cycle

Heat – more dense

cooling – less dense