-1419, he founded a school for navigators in Portugal

-From Portugal

-Following him, Portuguese fleets began going along the coast of Africa in search of gold

-found slaves in 1441 and brought them home from the Senegal River

-Portuguese leased land from local rulers in Africa and built stone forts along the coast in order to facilitate trade in gold, ivory, and slaves

-1488 he rounded the Cape of Good Hope but feared mutiny from his crew and returned home

-1498, ten years after Bartholomew Diaz, he rounds the cape of good hope and stopped at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants along East Africa

-Then crossed the Arabian Sea and reached the port of Calicut where he announced that he had come in search of "Christians and spices"

-profitted from such spices like ginger that he brought home

-Poruguese fleets returned regularly to the area wanting to destroy muslim/arabic shipping and create their own monopoly there

-

-Between the 14th and 18th centuries Spanish absolutist Kings would employ viceroys to rule over various Spanish territories

-the represented the monarch, but ran their own territories

-Provinces such as Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia,Navarre, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples were ruled by viceroys

-1451-1506

-believed that Asia was larger than people thought and could be reached by sailing west instead of around Africa

-Was rejected by the portuguese but convinced Queen Isabella of Spain to finance his explorations

-Set sail August 3, 1492

-He reached the Bahamas but believed he was in Asia.  Went on four voyages, touched all the corribean and some of central america but was convinced it was asia (Indians)

-Brutally tried to convert the natives to Christianity

-journeyed in 1519

-Passed through the straight named after him on the southern tip of south america

-then sailed across the pacific ocean and reached the philippines where the natives killed him

-first known circumnavigation of the earth

-Calvinist vs. Catholic conflict

-French Kings were concerned by the growth of Calvinism and tried to stop its spread by persecuting Calvinists but weren't very successful

-1562-1598

-Major constitutional crisis; briefly halted the development of the french centralized territorial state, people revolted against the monarchical centralized government

-loyalty went to a person's religion rather that their governmental preferences

-Unity of france was less important than religious truth to many people

-French Calvinists

-Came from all levels of society

-Artisans and shopkeepers angry with rising prices

-Merchants and lawyers with tenuous local privileges

-members of nobility

-40-50% of nobility became one

-House of Bourbon included

-Potentially dangerous political threat to monarchical power

-only 10% of population but were strong-willed and well-organized

-1547-1559

-killed accidentally in a tournament

-was succeeded by weak and neurotic sons, two of whome were dominated by their mother Catherine de'Medici (a moderate Catholic who looked to religious compromise)

-extreme catholic party

-favored strict opposition to the Huguenots and was led by the Guise family

-Formed a "holy league" in 1576 vowing to exterminate heresy and seat Henry Duke of Guise, a Catholic champion, on the French throne in place of Henry III

-Family that led the ultra-catholics

-possessed the loyalty of Paris and large sections of northern and northwestern france through their client-patronage system

-could recruit and pay for large armies 

-were supported by the papacy and jesuits 

-placed politics before religion and believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of civil war

-minority in france during the war

-August 1572

Occured when the catholic and calvinist parties had been reconciled through the marriage of Henry of Navarre and Charles IX's sister (Valois).  

-Guise family persuaded Charles IX and Catherine de' Medici (mother) that the gathering of Huguenots for that wedding was a threat to them so Charles decided to eliminate the Huguenot leaders 

-lasted three days filled with frenzied catholic mobs in Paris killing huguenots ruthlessly.  

-Bourbon ruler of Navarre.

-Son of Jeanne d'Albret who had been responsible for introducing Calvinist ideas into her kingdom

-was acknowledged as a political leader of the huguenots

-many huguenots traveled to his wedding to the sister of Valois King Charles IX (St. Bart's massacre)

-1588-1589

-Turning point in the French Wars of Religion

-Henry duke of Guise seized paris and forced King Henry III to make him chief minister

-Henry III assassinates Henry duke of Guise to be rid of guise influence 

-Henry III then joined with calvinist henry of navarre to crush the Catholic Holy League and retake Paris

-successful but Henry III was assassinated so Henry of Navarre took the throne

-Navarre converted back to catholicism b/c he knew he couldn't win over catholic france otherwise

-With his coronation in 1594 The French Wars of Religion ended

-Issued in 1598

-Acknowledged catholicism as the official religion of france but guaranteed the huguenots the right to worship in selected areas and allowed them to have some fortified towns for their protection

-Huguenots were allowed to have political positions aswell

-Greatest advocate of militant Catholicism in the second half of the 16th century

-His reign brought Spanish greatness both politically and culturally

-Goal 1: consolidate and secure lands from his father's reign

-Strict conformity to catholicism enforced by the agressive spanish inquisition

-Establishment of strong monarchical authority

-Expanded royal power, less dependent on aristocracy

-His attempt to make spain great led to great economic difficulties from trade inflation and expenses of war, led to spain's decline after his reign

-Spanish saw themselves as divinely chosen to save catholic xty from protestant heretics

-Was champion of catholicism throughout europe: led to great victories

-1571

-Philip II had a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet

-Spain had leadership of a holy league against turkish encroachments in the meditteranean, helped them

-Philip II wanted to control the Netherlands while Elizabeth of England was supporting them, causing much tension

-Philip invaded England trying to stop her support and return England to catholicism

-Giant fail, guaranteed for the time being that england would remain a protestant country

-psychological blow to spain

-Helped organize and mount growing resistance during the rebellion in the netherlands against spanish rule (Council of Troubles, Philip II sent Duke of alva to crush rebellion; reign of terror) 

-He wanted to unify the 17 provinces of the Netherlands

-Pacification of Ghent seemed to achieve this in 1576 which said that william would rule the provinces, respect religious differences, and demand that spanish troops be withdrawn.

-Religious differences proved to be too strong

-Duke of Parma became ruler after william of orange

-Split the united front of the netherlands

-Southern provinces became a Catholic Union-The Union of Arras- in 1579 and accepted spanish control

-William of Orange organized the seven northern provinces into a protestant union-the Union of Utrecht- determined to oppose spanish rule

-1609 A twelve-year truce ended conflicts between them and essentially recognized the northern provinces as independent 

-These "United Provinces" emerged as the Duth Republic

-Followed Queen Mary in 1558

-Rose England to prominence as the leader of the Protestant nations of Europe

-Religious policy: based on moderation and compromise

-aimed to avoid extremes, although primarily protestant

-Foreign policy: caution, moderation, and expediency

-Avoided alliances that would put her in war, but tried to weaken France and Spain

-Advised her seamen to raid Spanish ships and colonies

-Became involved in the Netherlands, supporting them she upset Philip II

-Ended the tudor dynasty with her death in 1603

-1559

-Designated Elizabeth as "supreme governor of this realm, as well as all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal" 

-Was vague so as not to upset anyone because catholics viewed the pope as the governer of the church and protestants viewed God as the governer of the church

-Began in 1564

-Originally referred to protestants within the anglican church who wanted to remove any trace of catholicism from the church

-inspired by calvinists

-A cycle in the economy when there's an increase in several economies leading to an increase  in prices, then followed by a rapid crash

-brings a considerably large reduction in investment and fall in consumption and an economic recession may follow

-First few decades of the 17th cent brought a marked decline to the european economy

-prices fell until about 1660, reversing the inflation of the 1500's 

-international trade declined

-foreign trading companies failed

-only the larger houses organized as joint-stock companies were able to servive

-1618-1648

-Stuggle b/w militant catholicism and militant calvinism

-Began as a war of religion in germany but became a european-wide war of politics

-Involved conflict b/w French Bourbons and Habsburg dynasties of Spain and the HRE

-Original conflict b/w catholics and protestants within germany 

-^^ was made worse by the constituional conflict b/w HRE wanting centralized government vs. German Princes wanting divided government/particularism

-Emperors turned the Habsburgs of Spain

-Princes turned to Spain's enemies like France

-WIDE-SPREAD WAR

-1555

-Brought an end to religious warfare b/w german catholics and lutherans

-Didn't recognize rights of calvinists

-However, they continued to fight for control over various principalities

-Elector of Palatine Frederick IV led The Protestant Union of German Protestant states

-Duke Maximilian led the Catholic League of south German states

-Germany was divided into two armed camps by 1609

-1618-1625

-Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand becomes King of Bohemian estates; tried to re-catholicize bohemia and strengthen royal power

-Protestant nobles rebelled: defenestration of prague

-Bohemian rebels took control of Bohemia and replaced Ferdinand with Elector Frederick V head of Protestant Union

-Ferdinand became HREmperor and refused ^ and beat them at the Battle of White Mountain

-Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and declared it as a hereditary Habsburg possession, confiscatin the land of Protestant nobles and establishing Catholicism as the sole religion

-1625-1629

-King Christian IV of Denmark, a lutheran, led an army into North Germany

^ had an anti-habsburg and anti-catholic alliance with the united provinces

-Albrecht Von Wallenstein became commander for the imperial forces for Ferdinand and defeated Christian IV in 1627 causing the end of danish supremacy in the baltic

-After his successes Emperor Ferdinand II issued the Edict of REstitution

-March 1629

-Issued by Emperor Ferdinand II

-Prohibited calvinist worship and restored to the catholic church all property taken by protestant princes or cities during the past 75 years

-Sudden growth in centralized power frightened german princes so they forced the emperor to dismiss wallenstein

-1630-1635

-Marked by the entry of Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, into the war

-Battle of Lutzen (1632) was where Adolphus beat the imperial army (wallenstein) but the swedish king was killed

-At the Battle of Nordlingen (1634) Imperial forces drove the swedes out of souther germany even though wallenstein was dead

-guaranteed that southern germany would remain catholic

-Emperor Ferdinand made peace with the german princes by annulling the edict of restitution, but peace wasn't really achieved

-1635-1648

-French directly entered the war

-Religious issues began to lose significance, it was more b/w the habsburgs and the bourbons

-Catholic French supported the Protestant swedes against the catholic habsburgs of germany and spain

-Battle of Rocroi in 1643 brought an end to spanish military greatness when the french won

-French beat imperialist bavarian armies in south germany

-War in germany was ended w/ peace of westphalia

-War b/w france and spain continued until peace of the pyrenees in 1659

-1648

-Ensured that all German states, including the calvinist ones, were free to determine their own religion

-France controll the Franco-German border area

-Austrian Habsburgs lost authoritative power, not so much land

-The 300+ states of the HRE were left basically independent with the power to conduct their own foreign policies

-Made it clear that religion and politics were now separate

-The pope was completely ignored in the treaty

-Political motives became the guiding forces in public affairs as religion moved closer to becomming primarily a matter of personal conviction and individual choice

-17th century England there was tension about what role the King and Parliament should play in governing the nation; resistance to absolute monarchy

-James I believed in the devine right of kings

-Charles I stopped summoning parliament to meet

-English Civil War b/w Parliament and the King

-Rump Parliament

-Cromwell dissolved Parliament

-Monarchy and House of Lords were restored after his death, Parliament kept some power including right to consent to tax

-Charles I dismisses Parliament

-James II a devout catholic raises conflict b/w King and parliament again

-Glorious revolution: 1688

-William of Orange invades England forcing James to flee to France

-Without much bloodshed, the revolution became over who would be the monarch rather than whether or not there would be one

-Revolution settlement confirmed William and Mary as monarchs

-Bill of Rights in 1689 affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible of rKings to oppose or do without Parliament

-laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy

-By deposing one King and establishing another during the Glorious revolution, Parliament had demolished the divine-right theory of kingship and confirmed its right to participate in the government

-Following Elizabeth, ended the Tudor dynasty and began the Stuart dynasty in 1603

-From Scotland, he didn't understand England's traditions and customs 

-Promoted the divine right of Kings; that they receive their power directly from God and are responsible to no one except God

-alienated Parliament, ignoring the tudor concept of "balanced polity"

-1625-16649

-During his reign Parliament passed the Petition of Right saying that Parliament's consent was necessary for any taxation

-Charles agreed but didn't follow it b/c it limited royal power

-Charles knew he couldn't work with Parliament so he stopped summoning it 

-PERSONAL RULE

-instituted ship money tax on seacoast towns to pay for defense/other gov't operations

-Attempted to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on the scottish church

-Scots rebelled and Charles I had to call Parliament because he needed money for troops

-"Long Parliament": Parliament was held but they were against Charles so they placed severe limitations on royal authority; Parliament reforms

-Parliament began to split b/w those who were happy with the reforms and those who wanted more radical reforms

-Charles took advantage of ^ and tried to arrest five leading members, beginning the civil war

-Issued the Declaration of Indulgence suspending the laws that Parliament had passed against Catholics and puritans

-Dismissed Parliament in 1681 relied on French subsidies

-1685

-Devout catholic; tried to further catholic interests making religion a primary cause of conflict b/w king and parliament again

-Opposed the Test Act (only Anglicans can hold military and civil offices) and put catholics in high positions in government

-Issued a new Declaration of Indulgence in 1687 which suspended all laws barring catholics and dissenters from office

-Was removed from the throne in 1689 when Parliament asserted that he'd tried to subvert the constitution

-Leader of New Model Army

-Recaptured the fleeing King Charles in 1648 and was determined to win from the army's point of view

-Crushed a catholic uprising in ireland

-Dispersed the Rump Parliament by force in 1653

-Had destroyed both King and Parliament

-New Form of government was produced by the army in the Instrument of Government

-England's first and only written constitution

-Executive power was vested in Cromwell, the Lord Protector, and legislative power in a reconsituted parliament

-Cromwell couldn't work with parliame tb/c they debated his authority

-Cromwell dissolved Parliament in 1655 and divided the country in 11 regions each ruled by a major general 

-He couldn't establish a good constitutional basis for government so he maintained the rule of the independents through military force

-Died in 1658 and Charles II restored the Suart monarchy 

-Helped Parliament in the first phase of the civil war 

-Was composed primarily of more extreme puritans known as the independents who believed they were doing battle for God

-Led by Oliver Cromwell

-Presbyterian members of Parliament were purged during the second phase of the civil war

-The remaining 53 members of the House of commons were the Rump parliament

-They tried and condemned Charles I on a charge of treason, had him beheaded

-After ^, they abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords proclaiming England a republic or commonwealth (1649-1653)

-Cromwell disperses them by force in 1653

-a treatise on the prosecution of witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman

-was first published in 1487.

-The main purpose was to attempt to systematically refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, discredit those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to claim that witches were more often women than men, and to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find them out and convict them

-a period of European art that emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520; lasted until about 1580 in Italy, when a more Baroque style began to replace it

-Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century throughout much of Europe 

-has a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism 

-Painter, scultpor, and architect of the spanish renaissance

-enriched his style with elements of mannerism and the venitian renaissance

-The baroque period was one of artistic style thast used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music

-Stated around 1600 in rome, italy, and spread to most of europe

-A Flemish Baroque painter and a proponent of an extravagant baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality.  

-Known for his counter-reformation altarpieces etc

-successor of michelangelo

-An Italian artist from rome mostly

-Counter-reformer

-leading sculptor of his age and a prominent architect

-was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance, known for popularising the essay as a literary genre, and commonly thought of as the father of modern skepticism.

-was an English poet and playwright

-widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist 

-is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" 

-His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems

-His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright

-was a Spanish playwright and poet

-one of the key figures in the Spanish Golden Century Baroque literature

-the volume of his literary output is unequalled, making him one of the most prolific authors in the history of literature.

-was a Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright

-His magnum opus, Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel, is a classic of Western literature, and is regarded amongst the best works of fiction ever written

-His influence on the Spanish language has been so great that the language is often called la lengua de Cervantes

-dubbed El Príncipe de los Ingenios ("The Prince of Wits")

-The supreme governing body of Spain's colonies in America

-The councelors were appointed by the king

-Henry of Navarre was a Bourbon ruler

-Bourbon monarchs ruled navarre from 1555 and france from 1589 until 1792 with the overthrow of the monarchy during the French Revolution 

-they fought the Habsburgs from 1609-1659

-In the New World, the Spanish developed an administrative system based on viceroys.  

-Spanish possessions were initially divided into two major administrative untis

-New Spain (Mexicov, Central America, and the Caribbean islands) with it's center in Mexico City

-Peru (Western South America) governed by a viceroy in lima

-Flourishing european trade of the sixteenth century revolved around three major areas: 

-Mediterranean in the south

-the Low Countries and the Baltic region in the north

-and central europe whos inland trade depended on the rhine and danube rivers

-Overseas trade expanded so the atlantic seaboard began to play a more important role, linking the mediterranean, baltic, and central european trading areas together and making the whole of europe into a more integrated market that was all the more vulnerable to price shifts

-dutch came to monopolize both European and world trade but were challenged by the gnlish and french in 17th century

-Commercial expansion was made easier by new forms of commercial organization, joint-stock company

-many profits from technological innovations in shipbuilding etc

-Closer relationships b/w governments and entrepeneurs 

-New banks

-Despite the growth of commercial capitalism, most of the european economy still depended on an agricultural system