1.  Politics mattered more than religion and morality.

2.     State depended on institutional loyalties, not personal loyalties, ex. -> he abandoned the Queen Mother to join forces with her son.

3.     Interests of state come above interests of people. Squeezing mules. Not a popularity conte

   4.     State sought monopoly of legal power & military power. King -> brute force & legal justice.

   5. Defined state power as protection against outside states. Whole state together against outside war.

Said reason was manly, unlike Frederick the Great's father.

-        Gave the Huguenots freedom of conscience and worship

-        However, no military privileges. No forts & ports at La Rochelle. -> 1685 Edict of Nantes revoked

-        Claimed they were a “state within a state”

-        Had all fortresses demolished, because barons challenged royal authority

-        Banned private duels -> any sort of civil war, no settling differences privately

-        Failed to rid France of the Parlement, superior law courts ruled by judges who had bought or inherited their judgeships, and could challenge King’s authority by refusing to pass laws, refuse to register them in their books.

1.     Politics triumphed over religion. Catholic France helps Protestant states, because the Catholic Hapsburgs would otherwise hold too much power.

2.     Religion and personal loyalties less important than institutional loyalties. Albrecht von Wallenstein. Ambition Bohemian Catholic general who was angry with the emperor’s treatment of him, considered allying with the Protestants instead of the Hapsburgs. (Killed first, of course).

3.     Each state had a monopoly power within its own borders. Each state wanted its own independence. Hapsburgs pulled to unite the Holy Roman Empire, as there was already too much shared power. Power & state interests were what counted.

4.     Decisions for war or peace based on interests of state, not those connected closely.

5.     Foreign policy triumphed over domestic policy.

6.     Balance of power. Outside powers like Denmark, Sweden, & France have an interest in preventing one state from gaining too much power.

-        Religious in part. Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists. Lutherans outnumber Calvinists, who are not constitutionally recognized.

-        Treaties made following wars. Peace at Augsburg, land & property to stay under Lutheran/Catholic control in 1552. Religion in these lands is controlled, convert or emigrate. Treaties commonly broken by Protestants and Catholics.

-        Calvinists took over jurisdictions in Palatinate. 1 of 7 territories that can vote on the emperorship. However, religion still not recognized. Calvinist position insecure.

-        Fights grow larger. Catholics ally with Bavaria. Calvinists aggressive. Catholics versus Protestants. Calvinists versus Lutherans. Small states versus emperors.

-        Catholic rulers made sure that Hapsburgs would never get too strong.

-        Holland revolts against Hapsburg Spain. This actually lasts even longer ->80 years.

-        Dutch control the sea

-        Bohemians revolt against Hapsburg rule. Friedrich the 5^th takes the crown as rulers are thrown out. Eager to win territory, however, forces opposing Hapsburgs weaker than he thought. Assumed that Protestants were allied, but Lutherans will not fight for Calvinists. Hapsburgs offer Palatinates votes for future emperors, and the King agrees. Revolt is crushed. Bohemians forced to become Catholics, lose privileges.

-        Hapsburgs need more than Bavarians, try to get an imperial army.

-        Hapsburgs take over more Protestant territories, failed to conquer port cities. Subdued only inland territory.

Outsiders resent Hapsburgs’ power. Claiming that emperor has absolute power, Holy Roman Emperor claiming the right to dictate who is entitled to what land. No power left within the Holy Roman Empire that can resist. France persuades Sweden to join war on Protestant side. Lutheran religion, French money, political interests. The French pay for the Swedish army.

Germans desperate for peace. Disease, stealing, killing, burning, pillaging. 1/3 dead. 

Peace at Westphalia

1648. Prussia rises as new, stronger Protestant state in the north. However, the treaty has for now, permanently weakened the Holy Roman Empire. No right to declare war, collect taxes, or pass laws. Calvinism recognized

-        Privilege. Municipality can own property, collect and pay taxes, and dues. Right to go to court.

-        Each locality has its own social customs, way of life, & economic & religious identity.

-        Most stay where they were born.

-        Inheritance is either impartible -> every child gets an equal share, or partible -> first born son gets all.

-        Boecklin family lordship over Rust, Germany.

-        Rust mainly Catholic, but Boecklins allow Jews to reside there mainly to extort money from them.

-        Effective self-government, but ultimately Boecklins have power over them. They may rebel or get angry, and the lords may concede some rights/agreements with them, but Rusters must obey.

Pierre Goubert

French historian,  believes -        1600s’ was NOT a Golden Age. Louis XIV was overrated – the other inhabitants deserved equal attention. One long term general crisis, with deep underlying causes. Money and population. Silver supply fell, population stagnated and dropped, compared with previous century. Louis XIV and 20 million other people. Whatever Louis did, did not really matter. Maybe even the whole world economy, trade going down. Louis XIV doesn't understand it, people don't, it is just happening to them. They are victims of it.

Louis XIV’s Wars

-        Louis XIV rules around the same time as the “general crisis.” Anne of Austria rules in a Regency while King grows ups. Parlement changed a lot of his father’s will.

-        Civil War, ”Fronde,” 1648-1653. Voltaire says it was resistance to new taxes, and frowns upon it. Began year 30 years war ended, in which there were many French victories. Condé, famous general.

-        Louis XIV angry at Paris mob. Moves to Versailles, sees himself as central authority. Absolutist.

-        Builds up French troops. A Gallican. French Catholic church with its own traditions, and danger of people looking to Rome instead of Paris. Revokes Edict of Nantes.

-        Restricts Parlement’s right of remonstrance. King does not have to listen.

-        “Loves war too much.” Self-promotion. Works for a while, then other powers become wary.

-        High point of career is attaining Burgundy from the Netherlands, who took it from Spain.

-        France trying to achieve hegemony.

-        Willem III of England, Scotland, & Ireland allies with many powers.

-        Tries to conquer Palatinate. 1/10^th of French population dies, in debt, deaths exceed births.

-        Louis wants his 2^nd grandson, Philippe, to inherit both France and Spain. But others do not. “The Pyrenees do not exist.” Failure. France cannot attain hegemony. Impossible.

-        Once Louis XIV dies, Parlement rules his will unconstitutional. Get their rights back. Absolutism is impermanent.

-       policy that tries to keep fortune within a state, build up its wealth and power. Tariffs and monopolies. Manifestation of the general crisis. Restricts trade. Fewer imports does not mean more exports, because others will not want to pay high tariffs, etc.

Random Birth Control Info

-        No birth control in 1600. Prostitutes and pioneering noblewomen don’t count. Withdrawal and abstinence the only methods.

-        Breastfeeding. Suppresses ovulation, delaying next birth. Some areas breastfeed, like Aquitaine, Frisia, and England. Some do not, such as Flanders and Bavaria. Statistics match this data. Breastfeeding produces fewer offspring, and more survive.

-        Delaying age of marriage.

Populations go down. People having less kids, death exceeding births. General crisis? Individual decisions separately, making an economy go up or down.

P

The British Constitution

-        Hume, a skeptical Scot. Uses trial and error, scientific reasoning. Was either a fideist or a skeptic. Bayle says that he was a fideist because he feared reason. But Hume was a skeptic when it came to standard religion. Boswell said that when Hume died he was very calm about having nothing left to look forward too, also. Wrote History of England.

-        Interpretation ran against standard views of Whigs, who controlled Parliament in most of the 1700s. Whigs were righteous. Rights and liberties were recent innovations, not always there. Historian’s conscience. Agreed with the present, but not how it came to be.

-        Parliament is bicameral. House of Lords/Peers, and House of Commons. Elite system of privilege. All own land.

-        James I (1566-1625) is an absolutist. Rejected Parliament’s claim that privilege always existed. A “deliberate plan?” Hume says the British constitution is too vague; it is unwritten.

-        For Hume, lack of Parliamentary consent for the King’s actions, rather than the actual laws, was the cause of conflict.

-        Parliament requires free elections. In addition, members cannot be arrested, restrained, or imprisoned while Parliament is in session. Monarch also cannot limit debate.

Glorious Revolution

-        Not religious. Privilege. Britain was a Protestant state, but some stayed Catholic in secret, or followed Calvin or some small sect.

-        James II, Roman Catholic (1685-1688). Whigs mistrust him. James II tries to suspend discriminatory laws. Arrests bishops, judges who try and defy him to prosecute Catholics. He flees to France. Both Whigs and Tories claim he abdicated.

-        Willem -> William III, (1689 – 1702) & Mary. Parliament “amends” unwritten constitution. For Voltaire, reason should guide, not custom. Hume believes in trial and error, and building on what you have. Constitutions work themselves out in practice. Written constitutions lead to civil war.

Cartesianism

-        Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher. Posed new questions, new problems using systematic doubt.

-        Out with the old, in with the new. Cogito, ergo sum “I think, therefore I am”-> the founding point. Can’t be doubted. Nothing in the mind in which the mind is not conscious. However, senses are not trustworthy. Rules, laws that guided the universe. Critical thinking -> everything is called into question.

-        Follow reason and get closer and closer to perfection. Optimistic. Forward thinking.

-        Against Roman Catholic Church. Anticlerical. Emotion and faith blinds people.

-        Religious toleration. Then use reason to find the best religion.

-        Cartesian logic

-        Influenced by Jewish thinkers and Descartes. Belief should be rejected unless there is proof. Rationalist, guided by reason. Rejected fideism. Faith without reason was worthless. Abstract reason, sciànce. “Everything is God.” Kicked out of Synagogue. His political beliefs indicated that subjects would agree to obey to a single sovereign, but some rights could not be surrendered. It would not be rational. But, sovereigns can treat as enemies those that do not agree with them, but not too often -> conformity of thought is dangerous. There are limits to legal enforcement. Loyal subjects will obey the law usually. Bayle called him an atheist.

Baron Montesquieu

-        Came from Bordeaux. Family is judges on Parlement.

-        2 kinds of nobility. Conquer or by purchase.

-        Published Persian Letters, instant success. Satire of many European traditions and customs.

-        Someone or something entitled to rule. 3 basic forms of government. Monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Absolutism is different than despotism, which is arbitrary, and not rational. However, Montesquieu defends privilege. Admires the British, mistakenly thinks that no one branch can acquire too much power. Systematic, trial and error. There was no distinction between powers, actually. Montesquieu inspired French Revolution and U.S. constitutions with this idea of 3 branches. Legislative – made laws. Executive – enforce. Judicial – Interpret.

Voltaire

-        Critical of French society. Jailed, then exiled to Britain. Loved order. Single rational plan with a single rational planner. An absolutist. Against privilege. Anticlerical. Against Roman Catholic Church. Critical of French common law, unlike Hume. Praised Louis XIV. Wrote Encyclopédie. Readers held influential positions.

Rousseau

Frederick II

-        Gerhard Ritter paints portrait of Frederick II to appeal to Germany and Hitler, stop him. Frederick not a nationalist, just a Prussian king.

-        Tortured spirit? Wrote poetry, read philosophy. If he lost a battle, he would punish himself. Wrote letters confiding in his sister. Suicidal. Not enlightened rationalist. Stern, cruel father who led an interrogation against him, executed his best friend.

-        Risk-taking absolutist? Attacked privilege, strengthened military. Strengthened and centralized Prussia. Took risks, and they paid off. Could also be ENLIGHTENED absolutist.

-        Enlightened rationalist? Interested in French culture, always using reason to figure things out. Absolutist as well? Centralization, organization. Military.

-        Took Silesia, other German lands in war of Austrian succession. Disobeyed Pragmatic Sanction.

-        Maria Theresia appeals to Hungary. They help her claim back her lands, except Silesia, in Seven Years War.

-        Russia gets a new monarch, who admires Frederick II. Prussia saved from complete destruction.

-        Frederick II -> great things happen if risks are taken

-        Example of ministerial absolutism, like Richelieu. Subordinate barons, aristocrats -> the privileged are useless economically. Anticlerical.

-        Wanted Portugal to duplicate the economic success of Britain. Supported tariffs, gave farmers subsidies.

-        Roman law. Fathers given full command of families, generals of soldiers.

-        Expelled Jesuits from Portugal. Dervishes/Jesuits more loyal to Pope than the central state.

-        Believed in useful education. Commercial colleges

-        When king died, he was exiled, and many of his reforms were undone.

-        The Roman Catholic Church remained strong, and his ministerial absolutism was not a long term success.

The Impermanance of absolutist policies.

I

Malthus

-        Essay on the Principle of Population. Argued that population increases faster than resources. Masses of people would starve.

-        2 kinds of checks to prevent this.

-        Positive check -> Definite stop to population growth. Famine, fatal disease, war. Best avoided.

-        Preventative check -> Delay marriage. Abstinence.

Thomas Paine

-        The Rights of Man. Inspired by English rights to petition government, a trial by jury, and others.

-        Privilege inspired modern democracy.

-        Supporter of the French Revolution initially. Serves on the Mountain. Spared execution at the last minute.

Joseph II

-        Enlightened anticlerical, an absolute monarch who ruled with Maria Theresia. Tried unsuccessfully to centralize his territories, but the Parliaments forced him to concede and he died with little changed.

-        Because of his strong anticlerical views, this is known as Josephinism.

Leopold II

Joseph’s brother, duke of Tuscany.

-- would like to see most of the same reforms that his brother did, but was more concered with how these reforms came about

-- deliberately created Parliaments who he made changes hand in hand with à ACTIVELY LOOKED FOR CHECKS ON HIS POWER

Emmanuel Sieyès

-        Enlightened absolutist. Instigated the coup d’etat that put Napoleon in power.

-        Gives voting rights to “productive citizens,” or taxpayers during the French Revolution. Nobility and poor people cannot vote.

Edmund Burke

-        Served in House of Commons. Enlightened. Felt French Revolution was aristocratic self-interest. Very much opposed to it. Whig, agreed with the American Revolution. Shock that he was not agreed with the French Revolution.

French writer, exiled from France. Born into Calvin Protestantism. Converted to Catholicism, then back to Protestantism. Huguenots in trouble, persecuted at that time, so headed for the Netherlands. Affinity for religious tolerance. However, believes some answers are better than others. Cared about the “correct” religion. Could be interpreted as fideist, rationalist, or skeptic, depending on who you ask. Other/Non/Pre-Enlightenment Thinkers

E.P. Thompson

-        A Marxist. Claims capitalism is only for naked self-interest. Wrote about the Industrial Revolution and how it brought capitalism about. Said privilege was replaced by class.

-        Card carrying communist until the party crushes a rebellion in Hungary. Stalin made Marxism too bureaucratic for Thompson’s liking.  Interested in class consciousness, how they feel and act. Other/Non/Pre-Enlightenment Thinker

Ricardo

Wollstonecraft

Feminist. Defends French Revolution.  Other/Non/Pre-Enlightenment Thinkers

Joseph de Maistre

Counter-enlightenment thinker. Believes, along with Montesquieu, that unwritten constitutions will adjust laws to the people and time of place. The more that is written down, the weaker the law becomes. A nation cannot be written in ink. Makes people disagree more.

Germaine de Staël

-        French writer under Napoleon. Had many lovers -> Talleyrand, Napoleon’s brother, Benjamin Constant. Napoleon detests her. She’s not allowed in Paris.

-        Angry when Napoleon executes poet Enghien by court martial on trumped up charges. Angry that she calls him the "person" because he's related to Conde. Violation of international law to go across a border to arrest someone, on trumped up charges.

Necker, her father, against tyranny of the masses, and arbitrary despotism rule. Napoleon, she feels, is a despot.

Other/Non/Pre-Enlightenment Thinkers

Turgot

-        Statesman and economist in France during reign of Louis XVI. Advocate for economic liberalism.

-        Minister of the navy briefly, when France was having large deficit issues.

-        Forced to resign. Tries to abolish guilds, get it through the Parlement, lit de justice. Fails. Guilds come back. Free trade in grain failed as well - food riots. Ministerial absolutism, free trade v. mercantilism, privilege winning over absolutism.

-        1760s, England. There were other periods of technological innovation, even when production was fast. Why was this significant?

-        Was it the steam power? Or new incredible pace of production?

Capitalism

-        Individuals free to buy and sell assets in return for other assets.

-        Workers, and employers.

-        Goods, people, and money should be freely flowing where they want to move.

-        Guilds, tariffs, local loyalties, patriotism, and family ties stop market forces from ruling early Europe.

Class

-        Antagonistic relations arising from the way humans obtain their livelihoods. Material collisions.

-        Not just rich or poor. A capitalist is a capitalist, no matter how high wages are. Class is not income, wealth, or status. It is how the person understands money.

Population Boom

-        See Malthus.

-        Halifax, England. Population mushroomed, major industrial growth.

-        Germany dealt with overpopulation by emigration.

-        British used the extra population for labor.

-        France engaged in fertility control. Population stabilized.

-        Is the “revolution” the transfer of individual labor units to large scale mills, or the exponential growth of production? Increased 1000x from 1700 to 1860.

-        More, and cheaper.

Luddite Revolts

-        Reputation for attacking and smashing textile machines.

-        Thompson said that they demonstrated a growing interest in the needs of the worker.

-        Systematic. Only broke machines of those that did not maintain wages. Did not permit looting.

Examples of Privilege Triumphing

-        Capitalism is forcing markets to combine.

-        Parlement, guilds, nobles, and common law, not merely abolished by decree, but forever, by the French Revolution.

-        Absolutism of the masses has taken away privilege.

-        Louis XV used the lit de justice to force Parlement to conform to his will. After his death, a regency surfaces again, and once more Parlement have veto rights.

-        Luddites, an organized group of people campaigning for fair wages -> Thompson

Hungary and Belgium in late 1700's 

-        Joseph II, son of Maria Theresia. Wants to see centralization and weaken Parliaments, churches, guilds, nobility, and municipalities and subject them to royal will. Shares rule with her.

-        Refused to call Hungary’s parliament. Magyar gentry who dominate Hungary are very upset.

-        Restructures Belgium and Hungary using Voltaire’s ideas, does not allow Parliament to debate.

-        Anticlerical policy. Priests and bishops had to obey him before the Pope or anyone else.

-        By introducing such radical reforms, he alienates the elite, the artisans, and the Roman Catholics in his lands.

-        Belgian protest. Further alienation. German is the “official language.”

-        Redistributed taxes. Magyars preparing to uprise, so Joseph II must call their Parliament back. Forever weakened.

-        His brother, Leopold takes throne and repeals the rest of his reforms. Privilege wins again.

Brussels Aristocratic revolt 

-        Artisans from 9 guilds in town rebelled against taxes from Spanish King. Each has 2 representatives. In practice, the group has a lot of influence with the town council. The town council are the ones who select representatives to the estates general of the parliament. Parliament will not agree to new taxes that the Spanish King wants. Privilege gaining ground, structuring life at the local level.

When Privilege Loses in France

-        Who will approve taxes in France? Debts are growing from military spending, and supporting the colonies in America.

-        Assembly of Notables? Chosen by King. Absolutists favor this, Privileged favor the Estates General, whose members are chosen by subjects of the realm.

-        Who will approve taxes?

-        Jacques Necker, finance minister of France. Supports estates general. Greatest achievement was using loans and high interest rates instead of taxes to help fund France.

When Privilege Wins Again in France

-        Parlement is restored. Denounce absolutist policies such as lettres de cachet and military letters, which allow King to do as he pleases.

-        Aristocratic Revolution appeared successful.

-        French Revolution. Absolute power and will of the masses.  Was a -        Political revolution. Battle over the definition of sovereignty.

-        Class struggle. Aristocrats v. working class.

-        Cultural Revolution. Attempt to reinvent public space.

-        Three estates. The bourgeois, the laborers, and the middle class -> Third Estate.

-        Announced they would assume the French debt and write a constitution.

-        Tennis Court Oath. Claim to represent all of France ->a challenge to privilege.

-        Louis XVI resists, but pressured to allow it.

-        Crowd gathers in Paris, frees all (7) Bastille prisoners. Necker is recalled as a result.

-        King forced to move back to Paris, crowd storms to Versailles.

Centralization of Gallican Church

-        Roman Catholic Church in France put under control -> Gallican Church.

-        Civil Constitution of the Clergy

-        Parish priests and bishops must sign new oath of allegiance, to the King of France.

-        Pope denounces, suspends those that sign new oath.

-        Monarchy, legislative assembly, traitors, and invaders all being executed without trials. Reign of Terror. Louis executed. Will of the people, absolute.

-        Monarchy replaced by a republic. A constitutional convention. Mountain (radical democratic republicans) and the Swamp/Plain (more moderate independents).

-        Division. Some want centralization, some do not want it as radical.

-        Committee of Public Safety, elected every year. Carries out will of the convention.

-       member of the Jacobin Club, an extremely radical group, anticlerical, anti-monarchist, and for suffrage of all men. Claimed King did not need evidence of guilt. To rule is to be guilty. To be passive or indifferent is to be guilty. Closely allied with Robespierre, he served with him on the Committee of Public Safety, becoming heavily involved in the Reign of Terror and was executed with him after the events of 9 Thermidor at the age of twenty-six.

serves in the Mountain. Says King should be exiled to America.

FIRST ESTATE – clergy

SECOND ESTATE – nobility

THIRD ESTATE – commoners, tax paying households.

a political group, whose members, called Montagnards, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly. The term, which was first used during the session of the Legislative Assembly, did not come into general use until 1793.

At the opening of the National Convention the Montagnard group comprised men of very diverse shades of opinion, and such cohesion as it subsequently acquired was due rather to the opposition of its leaders to the Girondist leaders than to any fundamental agreement in philosophy among the Montagnard's own leaders. The chief point of distinction was that the Girondists were mainly theorists and thinkers, whereas the Mountain consisted almost entirely of uncompromising men of action.

During their struggle with the Girondists, the Montagnards gained the upper hand in the Jacobin Club, and for a time "Jacobin" and "Montagnard" were synonymous terms. The Mountain was successively under the sway of such men asMarat, Danton, and Robespierre.

Dominating the Convention and the Committee of Public Safety, they imposed a policy of terror. The Mountain was then split into several distinct factions, those who favored an alliance with the people, and social measures – led byGeorges-Jacques Danton – and the proponents of The Terror – led by Maximilien Robespierre. In addition, several members were close to the mountain of the Enragés led by Jacques Roux, or Hebertism led by Jacques René Hébert. The group was to become one of the prime movers in the eventual downfall of Robespierre in the events of 9 Thermidor. The group dissolved shortly after Robespierre's death (28 July 1794).

After the February Revolution of 1848, the Mountain was reconstituted as the left wing faction in the Constituent Assembly elected that year (see: The Mountain (1849)), and in the Legislative Assembly which followed the next year.

-        Once France was winning again, less need for Reign of Terror and Public Safety. Robespierre executed. Saint-Just executed. Thermidor, the end of the reign of Terror.

a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following theConvention and preceding the Consulate. The period of this regime (2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799), commonly known as theDirectory (or Directoire) era, constitutes the second to last stage of theFrench Revolution.  -        More moderate, less democratic

-        New constitution. Written. Lasts only a few years.

-        Numerous plots and coups.

-        Could never have the same power as the Mountain.

-        Imperial system, on paper.

-        Popular sovereignty, as in, rule people as they want to be ruled.

-        No more privilege. All people subject to same set of laws.

-        Patriarchy inspired. Fathers rule their children, Napoleon rules his subjects.

-The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified. It was drafted rapidly by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force on March 21, 1804.  and private property.

-        Becomes basis of French legal system.  

-        Made peace with Roman Catholic Church -> Gallicism fell apart.

-        State has to recognize the resonance the Church strikes with the people -> they will not follow a cult of reason. Concordat with Roman Catholic Church. All is forgiven between France and Rome.

-        No more serfdom.

EDICT OF NANTES (1598)