Term
| Why is “life” difficult to define? |
|
Definition
| we don't know exactly what life is |
|
|
Term
| What are some elements of the doctrine of creation that are relevant to the study of biology? |
|
Definition
| God is the Creator of all things, God is the Sustainer of all things, humans are image bearers |
|
|
Term
| What are some elements of the Fall that are relevant to our study of biology? |
|
Definition
| idolatry is a tempation, human capacities are corrupted, "knowing" is distorted, creation is distorted |
|
|
Term
| How is redemption significant in our study of biology? |
|
Definition
| God is the Redeemer of all things, God intends to reconcile all things to Himself |
|
|
Term
| How is the consummation relevant to our study of biology? |
|
Definition
| God is the completer of all things; sin, death, and the devil will be dealt with; all creation groans for regeneration; Jesus will make all things new |
|
|
Term
| Be able to discuss several elements of stewardship and calling as it relates to our study of biology this semester. |
|
Definition
| faithful work as class and as individuals |
|
|
Term
| From what word roots does the term “biology” arise? |
|
Definition
bios- life
logos- word/discourse |
|
|
Term
| Be able to list and briefly describe at least 5 characteristics of life. |
|
Definition
cell organization
energy use and metabolism
response to environmental changes
regulatio and homeostasis
growth and development
reproduction
biological evolution |
|
|
Term
| What can be “good, bad, and ugly” about reductionism? |
|
Definition
good- how do smaller parts contribute to the whole?
bad- whole is nothing but parts
ugly- all organisms are just machines |
|
|
Term
| Be able to distinguish between “bottom up” and “top down” explanations. |
|
Definition
bottom up- an account of behavior or phenomena on one level is given by telling a story based on levels below
top down- an account of behavior or phenomena on one level is given by telling a story based on levels above |
|
|
Term
| What is the fundamental principle of chemistry? |
|
Definition
| atoms tend to be most stable when they have full outer shells |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast polar and non-polar covalent bonds. |
|
Definition
polar- differen electonegativities
nonpolar- similar electronegativities |
|
|
Term
| What characteristics of water molecules accounts for the properties of water? |
|
Definition
| hydrogen bonds, high heat of vaporization, high heat of fusion |
|
|
Term
| Describe the forces involved in hydrogen bonds and give examples of structures which contain H-bonds. |
|
Definition
| set up by presence of polar covalent bond between H and an atom more electronegative than H; H involved has partial positive charge and when it comes in contact with an atom with partial negative charge, H bond is formed DNA, water molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a chemical bond in which 2 atoms share a pair of electron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bond that occurs when a cation binds to an anion |
|
|
Term
| What are Vander Waals interactions? |
|
Definition
| weak interacions of electron clouds in nonpolar regions of molecules that involves a kind of synchrony in moement of electrons around 2 or more molecules |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast polar and nonpolar molecles. |
|
Definition
polar- contains significant number of polar bonds
nonpolar- composed predominately of nonpolar bonds |
|
|
Term
| What is an acid and what is a base? |
|
Definition
acid- molecule that releases H ions in a solution
base- molecule that when dissolved in water lowers H+ concentration |
|
|
Term
| Be able to describe the various roles and basic properties of water. |
|
Definition
| solvent for most chemical reactions in all living organisms; solutes dissolve ina solvent to produce a solution; exists as ice, liquid water, and vapor; high heat of evaporation and high heat of fusion make liquid water very stable; hydrolysis breaks down large molecules into smaller units; dehydration combines 2 units into one; pH refers to H ion concentration |
|
|
Term
| Why is carbon especially suited to be the backbone for biologically important macromolecules? |
|
Definition
| bonding versatility- has 4 valence electrons and can therefore bind to 4 separate atoms |
|
|
Term
| Why do phospholipids form the bilayers found in membranes? |
|
Definition
| hydrophylic polar ends are attracted to water and hydrophobic ends exclude water |
|
|
Term
| What is the basis of the “rules” that govern base pairing in DNA? |
|
Definition
G with C
A with T (DNA) or U (RNA) |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of an amino group? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of a hydroxyl group? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of a carboxyl group? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of a phosphate group? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| many molecules bonded together to form a polymer; carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are important macromolecules found in living organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a large molecule formed by linking many smaller molecules called monomers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an organic molecule that can be usd to form larger molecules consisting of many repeating units of the monomer |
|
|
Term
| Name the four main groups or organic molecules. |
|
Definition
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Lipids |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 primary biological functions of carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
long term energy storage
short term energy storage (sugars) |
|
|
Term
| What is the chemical structure of glucose? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What distinguishes cellulose, glycogen, and starch? |
|
Definition
cellulose- plant polyccharide that is a polymer of beta-D-glucose will linear arrangement of carbon-carbon bonds and no branching
glycogen- in animal cells
starch- in plant cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| building blocks of proteins; have a common structure in which a carbon atom called the alpha carbon is linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a particular side chain |
|
|
Term
| What is the basic structure of an amino acid? |
|
Definition
| a carbon atom called the alpha carbon is linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a particular side chain |
|
|
Term
| What linkage type joins amino acids in proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What functions are associated with amino acids glycine, cysteine, and proline? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a protein domain? |
|
Definition
| conserved part of a given protein sequence and structure that can evolve, function, and exist independently of the rest of the protein chain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organic molecules having 3 components: 1 or more phosphate groups, a 5-carbon sugar (either deoxyribose or ribose), and a singe or double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms known as a base |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 components of a nucleotide? |
|
Definition
| 1 or more phosphate groups, a 5-carbon sugar (either deoxyribose or ribose), and a singe or double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms known as a base |
|
|
Term
| What are the names of N-containing bases that are found in DNA? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the names of N-containing bases that are found in RNA? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What distinguishes the sugar part of RNA nucleotides from the sugar part of DNA nucleotides? |
|
Definition
DNA- deoxyribose: 2 H on second carbon
RNA- ribose: H and hydroxyl group on second carbon |
|
|
Term
| What are the linkages that hold nucleotides together called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the basic structure of genomic DNA? |
|
Definition
| 2 strands of nucleotides coiled around each other to form a double helix held together by H bonds between a purine base on one strand and a pyrimidine base on opposite strand |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| issue of solid geometry (limiting factor is a critical surface area to volume ratio) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 characteristics which distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
1. Membrane enclosed nucleus (or lack of membrane)
2. Contain (or lack) organelles |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the plasma membrane? |
|
Definition
| membrane that controls movements of substances into and out of the cell; site of cell signaling |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope)? |
|
Definition
| double membrane that encloses the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the nuclear pores? |
|
Definition
| passageways for molecules into and out of the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the DNA? |
|
Definition
| double helix that provides genetic information |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the nucleolus? |
|
Definition
| site for subunit assembly |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the ribosomes? |
|
Definition
| site of polypeptide dependence |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the smooth ER? |
|
Definition
| site of detoxification and lipid synthesis |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the rough ER? |
|
Definition
| site of protein sorting and secretion |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the Golgi complex? |
|
Definition
| a stack of flattened, membrane-bound compartments that performs three overlapping functions: secretion, processing, and protein sorting |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the lysosomes? |
|
Definition
| small organelle found in in animal cells that contains acid hydrolases that degrade macromolecules |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the peroxisomes? |
|
Definition
| relatively small organelle found in all eukaryotic cells that catalyzes detoxifying reactions |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the mitochondria? |
|
Definition
| semiautonomous organelle found in eukaryotic cells; site of ATP synthesis |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the chloroplasts? |
|
Definition
| semiautonomous organelle found in plant and algal cells; site of photosynthesis |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the cytoskeleton? |
|
Definition
| network of 3 different types of protein filaments in the cytosol called microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments; provide shape and aid in movement |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the microfilaments? |
|
Definition
| thin type of protein filament composed of actin proteins that forms part of the cytoskeleton and supports plasma membrane; plays a key role in cell strength, shape and movement |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the microtubules? |
|
Definition
| type of hollow protein filament composed of tubulin proteins that is part of the cytoskeleton and is important for cell shape, organization and movement |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the intermediate filaments? |
|
Definition
| type of protein filament of the cytoskeleton that helps maintain cell shape and rigidity |
|
|
Term
| Distinguish between a genome and proteome. |
|
Definition
genome- complete genetic composition of a cell or species
proteome- complete compliment of proteins that a cell or organism can make |
|
|
Term
| What structures constitute the endomembrane system? |
|
Definition
| nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure and basic function of the chromosomes? |
|
Definition
| composed of genetic material, mainly DNA, and many types of proteins that hep to compact the chromosome to fit inside nucleus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which the plasma membrane invaginates, or folds forward, to form a vesicle that brings substances into the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which material inside a cell is packaged into vesicles and excreted into the extracellular medium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a form of endocytosis that involves the formation of a membrane vesicle, called a phagocytic vacuole, which engulfs a particle such as a bacterium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a form of endocytosis that involves the formation of membrane vesicles from the plasma membrane as a way for cells to internalize the extracellular fluid |
|
|
Term
| What is receptor mediated endocytosis? |
|
Definition
| a common form of endocytosis in which a receptor is specific for a given cargo |
|
|
Term
| What is active transport? |
|
Definition
| the transport of a solute across a membrane against its gradient (from a region of low concentration to a region of higher concentration); requires input of energy |
|
|
Term
| What is passive transport? |
|
Definition
| the diffusion of a solute across a membrane in a process that is energetically favorable and does not require input of energy |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of transport channels? |
|
Definition
| provide open passageway for the facilitated diffusion of ions or molecules across the membrane |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of carrier proteins? |
|
Definition
| bind to solute in hydrophilic pocket and undergo a conformational change that switches the exposure of the pocket from one side of the membrane to the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any solution that causes a cell to swell when places in the solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any solution that causes a cell to shrink due to osmosis of water out of the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| condition in which the solute concentrations on both sides of a plasma membrane are equal, which does not cause the cell to shrink or swell |
|
|
Term
| What are integral proteins? |
|
Definition
| a protein that cannot be released from the membrane unless it is dissolved with an organic solvent or detergent |
|
|
Term
| What are peripheral proteins? |
|
Definition
| a protein that is noncovalently bound to regions of integral membrane proteins that project out from the membrane, or they are noncovalently bound to the polar head groups of phospholipids |
|
|
Term
| What are lipid anchored proteins? |
|
Definition
| a type of integral protein that is attached to the membrane via a lipid molecule |
|
|
Term
| Define antiporter. Give example. |
|
Definition
| a type of transporter that binds 2 or more ions or molecules and transports them in opposite directions across membrane; __________ |
|
|
Term
| Define symporter. Give example. |
|
Definition
| a type of transporter that binds 2 or more ions or molecules together and transports them in the same direction across the membrane; ___________ |
|
|
Term
| Define uniporter. Give example. |
|
Definition
| a type of transporter that binds a single ion or molecule and transports it across a membrane; ____________ |
|
|
Term
| What is the first law of thermodynamics? |
|
Definition
| energy cannot be created or destroyed |
|
|
Term
| What is the second law of thermodynamics? |
|
Definition
| the transfer of energy or the transformation of energy from one to another increases the entropy, or degree of disorder, of a system |
|
|
Term
| Describe the details of a sodium potassium pump. |
|
Definition
| can actively transport Na+ and K+ against their gradients by using energy from ATP hydrolysis; establish large gradients in which the concentration of Na+ is higher outside the cell and the concentration of K+ is higher inside the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a metabolic pathway in which a molecule is broken down into smaller components, usually releasing energy (downhill) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to chemical reactions that release free energy and occur spontaneously (spontaneous) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| metabolic pathway that involves the synthesis of larger molecules from smaller precursor molecules; usually require input of energy (uphill) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to chemical reactions that require an addition of free energy and do not proceed spontaneously (non-spontaneous) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in living organisms, the amount of available energy that can be used to do work |
|
|
Term
| What is potential energy? |
|
Definition
| stored energy that a substance possesses due to structure or location |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy associated with movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the removal of one or more electrons from an atom or molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the addition of electrons to an atom or molecule |
|
|
Term
| Define aerobic respiration. |
|
Definition
| a type of cellular respiration in which O2 is consumed and CO2 is released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the breakdown of organic molecules to produce energy without any net oxidation of an organic molecule |
|
|
Term
| What are the major features of oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP? |
|
Definition
| NADH and FADH2 are oxidized to make more ATP via the phosphorylation of ADP |
|
|
Term
| What is the overall chemical equation for aerobic respiration? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the electron transport chain? Where is it found in eukaryotes and prokaryotes? |
|
Definition
| a group of protein complexes and small organic molecules with the inner membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts and the plasma membrane of prokaryotes; components accept and donate electrons to each other in a linear manner and produce a H+ electrochemical gradient |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 major stages of aerobic respiration? |
|
Definition
1. glycolysis
2. pyruvate oxidation
3. citric acid cycle
4. electron transport chain
5. synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase |
|
|
Term
| Describe ATP synthase structure and function. |
|
Definition
| nonmembrane-embedded portion and membrane-embedded portion with a connecting matrix; an enzyme that utilizes the energy stored in a H+ electrochemical gradient for the synthesis of ATP via chemiosmosis |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 stages of fermentation? |
|
Definition
1. glycolysis
2. formation of organic end product |
|
|
Term
| What are 2 common fermentation products? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is an allosteric site? |
|
Definition
| a site or an enzyme where a molecule can bind noncovalently and affect the function of the active site |
|
|
Term
| Why are fermentation products formed? |
|
Definition
| to get rid of pyruvic acid and regenerate NAD+ |
|
|
Term
| What is feedback regulation? |
|
Definition
| a form of regulation in which the product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an enzyme that acts early in the pathway, thus preventing overaccumulation of the product |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process whereby light energy is captured by plant, algal, or bacterial cells and is used to synthesize organic molecules from CO2 and H2O |
|
|
Term
| What are light dependent reactions in phorosynthesis? |
|
Definition
| first of 2 stages in photosynthesis; photosystem II and photosystem I absorb light energy and produce ATP, NADH, and O2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2 distinct complexes of proteins and pigment molecules in chloroplasts that absorb light energy during light reactions of photosynthesis (PSI) and generate oxygen from water during light reactions of photosynthesis (PSII) |
|
|
Term
| What is the cyclic photophosphorylation pathway? |
|
Definition
| a pattern of electron flow in the thylakoid membrane that is cyclic and generates ATP alone |
|
|
Term
| What is the noncyclic photophosphorylation pathway? |
|
Definition
| combined action of PSII and PSI in which electrons flow in a linear manner to produce NADPH |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 components of a chlorophyll molecule? |
|
Definition
1. porphyrin ring
2. phytol tail |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the phorphyrin ring? |
|
Definition
| possesses a delocalized electron that can absorb light energy |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the phytol tail? |
|
Definition
| anchors the pigment to the surface of proteins within the thylakoid membrane |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 major phases of the Calvin-Benson cycle? |
|
Definition
1. carbon fixation
2. reduction
3. regeneration of ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ion or molecule that binds to a protein, such as an enzyme or a receptor |
|
|
Term
| What is a dissociation constant? |
|
Definition
| an equilibrium between a ligand and a protein, such as a receptor or enzyme |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 basic types of receptors? Give example(s) of each. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are second messengers? |
|
Definition
| small molecules or ions that relay signals inside the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of rubisco? |
|
Definition
| to catalyze the first step in the Calvin Cycle in which CO2 is incorporated into an organic moleule |
|
|
Term
| What is amplification in relation to signaling systems? |
|
Definition
| one activated molecule can add a phosphate group to multiple receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in eukaryotes, the process in which nuclear division results in two nuclei, each of which receives the same complement of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which haploid cells are produced from a cell that was originally diploid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to cells with 2 sets of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| containing one set of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a haploid cell that is involved with sexual reproduction, such as a sperm or egg cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a diploid cell formed by the fusion of 2 haploid gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the division of the cytoplasm to produce 2 distinct daughter cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the region where the 2 sister chromatids are tightly associated; an attachment site for kinetochore proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the structure responsible for organizing and sorting chromosomes during mitosis |
|
|
Term
| Define sister chromatids. |
|
Definition
| the 2 duplicated chromatids that are still joined to each other after DNA replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pair of chromosomes in a diploid cell |
|
|
Term
| What do the notations n and 2n mean? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When do sister chromatids separate in meiosis? |
|
Definition
| in anaphase II of meiosis II |
|
|
Term
| When do homologous pairs separate in meiosis? |
|
Definition
| in anaphase I of meiosis I |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of forming a bivalent (homologous pairs of sister chromatids associated with each other, laying side by side) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual with 2 identical copies of an allele |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual with 2 different alleles of the same gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the characteristics of an organism that are the result of the expression of its genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the genetic composition of an individual |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cross in which the inheritance of only one trait is followed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cross in which the inheritance of two different traits is followed |
|
|
Term
| What is the most common trisomy syndrome? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the phases of mitosis? |
|
Definition
interphase
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokinesis |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of interphase? |
|
Definition
| chromosomes are decondensed and found in the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of prophase? |
|
Definition
| nuclear envelope begins to dissociate into small vesicles; chromatids condense into highly compacted structures |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of prometaphase? |
|
Definition
| nuclear envelope completely fragments; mitotic spindle forms; 2 kinetochores on each pairs of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of metaphase? |
|
Definition
| pairs of sister chromatids aligned in single row along metaphase plate |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of anaphase? |
|
Definition
| connections between sister chromatids broken; kinetochore microtubules shorten; poles move farther from each other |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of telophase? |
|
Definition
| chromosomes reach respective poles and decondense; nuclear envelope reforms to make 2 separate nuclei |
|
|
Term
| What are the major event(s) of cytokinesis? |
|
Definition
| 2 nuclei are segregated into separate daughter cells |
|
|
Term
| What do the notations n and 2n mean? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When do sister chromatids separate in meiosis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When do homologous pairs separate in meiosis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of forming bivalent (homologous pairs of sister chromatids associated with each other, laying side by side) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual with 2 identical copies of an allele |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual with 2 different alleles of the same gene |
|
|
Term
| What are Mendel's 3 genetic principles? |
|
Definition
1. Law of Segregation
2. Law of Independent Assortment
3. |
|
|
Term
| What are sex chromosomes? |
|
Definition
| a distinctive pair of chromosomes that are different in males and females |
|
|
Term
| What is (in general terms) replication? |
|
Definition
| the copying of DNA strands |
|
|
Term
| What is transcription (in general terms)? |
|
Definition
| the use of a gene sequence to make a copy of RNA |
|
|
Term
| What is translation (in general terms)? |
|
Definition
| the process of synthesizing a specific polypeptide on a ribosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sequence of 3 nucleotide bases that specifies a particular amino acid or a stop codon; functions during translation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure composed of proteins and rRNA that provides the site where polypeptide synthesis occurs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| covalent bond that links amino acids in a polypeptide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzyme that synthesizes strands of RNA during gene transcription |
|
|
Term
| What is the genetic code? |
|
Definition
| code that specifies the relationship between sequence of nucleotides in mRNA codons and the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| heritable changes in the genetic material of an organism |
|
|
Term
| What is a point mutation? |
|
Definition
| affects only a single base pair within DNA or that involves the addition or deletion of a single base pair to a DNA sequence |
|
|
Term
| What is a missense mutation? |
|
Definition
| base substitution that changes a single amino acid in a polypeptide sequence |
|
|
Term
| What is a nonsense mutation? |
|
Definition
| changes normal codon into a stop codon; causes translation to be terminated early; produces truncated polypeptide |
|
|
Term
| What is a frameshift mutation? |
|
Definition
| involves addition or deletion of a number of nucleotides that aren't in multiples of 3 |
|
|
Term
| What are deletion mutations? |
|
Definition
| a segment of genetic material is missing |
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|
Term
| What are duplication mutations? |
|
Definition
| when a section of a chromosome occurs 2 or more times |
|
|
Term
| What are inversion mutations? |
|
Definition
| change in direction of genetic material along a single chromosome |
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|
Term
| What are spontaneous mutations? |
|
Definition
| resulting from abnormalities in biological processes |
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|
Term
| What are induced mutations? |
|
Definition
| brought about by environmental agents that enter the cell and then alter the DNA structure |
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Term
|
Definition
| types of pyrimidine dimer that can cause a mutation; a site where 2 adjacent thymine bases become covalently cross-linked to each other |
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Term
| What is a general description of cancer? |
|
Definition
| a disease caused by gene mutations that lead to uncontrolled cell growth |
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Term
|
Definition
| slow-growing, precancerous mass of abnormal cells |
|
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Term
| What are malignant tumors? |
|
Definition
| rapidly growing, aggressive, cancerous mass of abnormal cells that invade surrounding tissues; metastatic |
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Term
|
Definition
| process by which cancer cells spread from original location to distant parts of the body |
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Term
| How would a molecular biologist likely describe cancer in just a few words? |
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Definition
| progressive genetic instability |
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Term
| What is the general state of cancer risks, occurrence, mortality, age connection, and prevent-ability? |
|
Definition
| - 2 in 5 will develop cancer in lifetime - 1.5 million new cases per year in US - disease of old age - average age of diagnosis is 66 - 1 in 5 will die of cancer - 78% of cases involve environmental factors (semi-preventable) |
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Term
| What are proto-oncogenes? |
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Definition
| normal gene that if mutated can become an oncogene (an overreactive gene that contributes to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer) |
|
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Term
| What are the 4 major cancers? |
|
Definition
1. lung cancer
2. breast cancer
3. prostate cancer
4. colon cancer |
|
|
Term
| What aspects of a woman's reproductive history increases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which type of cancer has the highest incidence and lowest survival rate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the primary structure of proteins? |
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Definition
| the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide determined by genes |
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Term
| What is the secondary structure of proteins? |
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Definition
| the bending or twisting of proteins into alpha helices (polypeptide backbone forms a repeating helical structure stabilized by bonds along length of backbone) or beta pleated sheets (regions of polypeptide backbone lay parallel to each other and hydrogen bonds form between them, making a repeating zigzag or pleated shape) |
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|
Term
| What is the tertiary structure of proteins? |
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Definition
| a complex 3D shape formed when the polypeptide folds and refolds upon itself; includes all secondary structures and any interactions involving amino acid side chains |
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Term
| What is the quaternary structure of proteins? |
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Definition
| when proteins consist of more than one polypeptide chain |
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Term
| Describe the basic prokaryote structure. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the role of transport vesicles in protein production and transport? |
|
Definition
| to move the produced proteins to different parts of the cell |
|
|
Term
| What is primary active transport? |
|
Definition
| a type of transport that involves carrier proteins and pumps that directly use energy to transport a solute against a gradient (examples- Na pumps, Ca pumps, Proton pumps) |
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|
Term
| What is secondary active transport? |
|
Definition
| a type of membrane transport that involves the utilization of a pre-existing gradient to drive the active transport of another solute (examples- Na-proton and NaCa) |
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Term
| Why must there be a balance between endocytosis and exocytosis? |
|
Definition
| the cell would either shrivel or burst |
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Term
| What experimental evidence shows that proteins associated with cell membranes can move freely through the lipid bilayer? |
|
Definition
| a mouse cell and a human cell were fused and the proteins from the mouse cell were flagged with an antibody and a fluorescent dye. after incubated, it was observed that the proteins which had been segregated were now mingling within each other |
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Term
| What molecule is a common means of coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How (in general terms) do enzymes speed up reaction rates? |
|
Definition
| when bound to an enzyme, the bonds in reactants become strained, making it easier for them to achieve the transition state |
|
|
Term
| How do enzymes reduce activation energy? |
|
Definition
| by providing substrates with an ideal environment for the specific reation via cofactors, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups |
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|
Term
| Why are enzymes absolutely necessary for life as we know it? |
|
Definition
| almost all biological processes need enzymes to allow chemical reaction to occur at speeds sufficient for life |
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|
Term
| What are allosteric activators? |
|
Definition
| the transformation of a proenzyme into an active enzyme by the action of a kinase or another enzyme |
|
|
Term
| what are allosteric inhibitors? |
|
Definition
| molecules that bind to the enzyme and inhibit enzyme activities; 2 types- competitive and noncompetitive |
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|
Term
| Define noncompetitive inhibitors. |
|
Definition
| a molecule that binds to an enzyme at a location that is outside the active site and inhibits the enzyme's function |
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|
Term
| Define competitive inhibitors. |
|
Definition
| a molecule that binds to the active site of an enzyme and inhibits the ability of the substrate to bind |
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|
Term
| How do chloroplasts produce ATP? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe chloroplast structure. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens when a pigment molecule absorbs a photon? |
|
Definition
| boosts an electron to a higher orbital |
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Term
|
Definition
| genes that tend to be inherited together |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis; allows for increased variation in the genetic information that each parent may pass to the offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| the use of genetic crosses to determine the linear order of genes that are linked to each other along the same chromosome |
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|
Term
| What are genetic map units? |
|
Definition
| the units of distance between 2 genes in the arrangement of genes in a species' genome |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| all of the chromosomes found in cell nucleus of eukaryotes except for the sex chromosomes |
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|
Term
| What determines maleness in mammals? |
|
Definition
| the presence of a Y chromosome |
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|
Term
| What are X-linked traits? |
|
Definition
| traits that exist mainly on the X chromosome |
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|
Term
| What are some examples of X-linked traits? |
|
Definition
| hemophilia and blood types |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a highly condensed X chromosome present in female mammals |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| the phenomenon in which a single individual expresses 2 alleles |
|
|
Term
| What is polygenic inheritance? |
|
Definition
| the inheritance of a trait in which several or many genes contribute to the outcome of the trait |
|
|
Term
| What is the central dogma of molecular biology? |
|
Definition
| the transcription of DNA into mRNA and the translation of mRNA into a polypeptide |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 "regions" of mRNA? |
|
Definition
1. 5' untranslated region
2. protein-coding region
3. 3' untranslated region |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 classes of RNA and their functions? |
|
Definition
1. mRNA- carries genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm
2. tRNA- brings amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis
3. rRNA- guides translation of mRNA into a protein |
|
|
Term
| How many amino acids are avaliable for building proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do aminoacyl tRNA synthases do? |
|
Definition
| catalyze the attachment of amino acids to tRNA molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| aminoacyl site- one of 3 sites for t RNA binding in the ribosome during translation; where incoming tRNA molecules bind to the mRNA |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| exit site- where the uncharged tRNA exits |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| peptidyl site- holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| cluster of ribosomes responsible for assembling proteins from mRNA |
|
|
Term
| What are some spontaneous causes of mutations? |
|
Definition
- DNA polymerase fails
- replication errors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a molecule containing an atom with a single, unpaired electron in its outer shell |
|
|
Term
| What cellular process produces free radicals? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is DNA polymerase involved in DNA repair? |
|
Definition
| it fills the gap when UvrC is released from the DNA |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of glycosylases in DNA repair? |
|
Definition
| removes damaged nitrogen base but leaves sugar backbone in place and produces AP site |
|
|
Term
| What are the normal results of having an efficient DNA repair system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 types of radiation? |
|
Definition
1. ionizing
2. nonionizing (UV) |
|
|
Term
| What damage can ionizing radiation do? |
|
Definition
| base deletions, breaks in one DNA strand, or breaks in both DNA strands |
|
|
Term
| What damage can nonionizing (UV) radiation do? |
|
Definition
| formation of thymine dimers, skin conditions, DNA mutations |
|
|
Term
| What is the problem in Xerderma pigmentosum? |
|
Definition
| extreme photosensitivity that causes inability to repair UV-induced lesions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cancer of the epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a tumor of connective tissue such as bone or cartilage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cancer of the lymph nodes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regulates the cell cycle and prevents cancer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cancer of the epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| How do bacteria replicate? |
|
Definition
| asexually by binary fission |
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|
Term
| How is genetic variation introduced into bacterial populations and why is this an advantage? |
|
Definition
| through conjugation, transformation, and transduction; a change in genetics can occur in one bacterium and then be spread through an entire colony or to an entire species |
|
|
Term
| What is conjugation in bacteria? |
|
Definition
| a type of genetic transfer between bacteria that involves a direct physical interaction between two bacterial cells |
|
|
Term
| What is transformation in bacteria? |
|
Definition
| a type of genetic transfer between bacteria in which a segment of DNA from the environment is taken up by a competent cell and incorporated into the bacterial chromosome |
|
|
Term
| What is transduction in bacteria? |
|
Definition
| a type of genetic transfer between bacteria in which a virus infects a bacterial cell and then subsequently transfers some of that cell's DNA into another bacterium |
|
|
Term
| What are the general characteristics of viruses? |
|
Definition
- replication is based upon being taken up by a living cell either in viral form or simply the DNA
- need for a host cell
- can mutate
- acellular
- no metabolism
- possess either RNA or DNA (not both)
- totally dependent on host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a virus that infects bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a small circular piece of DNA found naturally in many strains of bacteria and occasionally in eukaryotic cells; can be used as a vector in cloning experiments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause of resistance to antibiotics; a combination of genes that makes some bacteria resistant to antibiotic |
|
|
Term
| What are some examples of prion diseases? |
|
Definition
| Scrapie, Mad Cow Disease, Chronic wasting disease, Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome |
|
|
Term
| How are prion diseased transmitted? |
|
Definition
| through consumption of postmortem brains of infected individuals |
|
|
Term
| What are the stages in the bacteriophage lytic cycle? |
|
Definition
1. Phage injects its DNA into cytoplasm
2. Phage DNA directs synthesis of many new phages
3. Cell lyses and releases new phages
4. New phages can bind to bacterial cells |
|
|
Term
| What are the stages in the bacteriophage lysogenic cycle? |
|
Definition
1. Phage injects its DNA into the cytoplasm
2. Phage DNA integrates into host chromosome
3. Prophage DNA is copied when cell divides
4. On rare occasions, a prophage may be excised from host chromosome |
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