Term
| Health Effects of Air Pollution |
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Definition
Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.
Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. In the great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution.
Long-term health effects can include
chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. |
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Term
| Health Effects of Flooding |
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Definition
Common injuries experienced during and after floods:
•Near-drowning
•Exposure, hypothermia (abnormally low body temperature)
•Electrical injuries (caused by downed power lines and displaced batteries)
•Burns
•Lacerations (torn or ragged wounds – often contaminated by the flood waters)
•Animal bites
•Increased risk for communicable diseases due to unsafe drinking water; these include gastroenteritis, typhoid and paratyphoid, fevers & hepatitis A & E.
•Mental health issues
Important medical supplies during and after flooding:
•Water purification treatments
•Wound care supplies (antiseptics, topical antibiotics)
•Antibiotics
•Essential non-medical supplies: mops, buckets, cleaning aids |
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Term
| Health Effects of Ventilation Pollutants |
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Definition
Immediate effects may show up after a single exposure or repeated exposures. These include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, headaches, dizziness, and fatigue. Such immediate effects are usually short-term and treatable. Sometimes the treatment is simply eliminating the person's exposure to the source of the pollution, if it can be identified. Symptoms of some diseases, including asthma, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and humidifier fever (PDF), may also show up soon after exposure to some indoor air pollutants.
The likelihood of immediate reactions to indoor air pollutants depends on several factors. Age and preexisting medical conditions are two important influences. In other cases, whether a person reacts to a pollutant depends on individual sensitivity, which varies tremendously from person to person. Some people can become sensitized to biological pollutants after repeated exposures, and it appears that some people can become sensitized to chemical pollutants as well.
Certain immediate effects are similar to those from colds or other viral diseases, so it is often difficult to determine if the symptoms are a result of exposure to indoor air pollution. For this reason, it is important to pay attention to the time and place symptoms occur. If the symptoms fade or go away when a person is away from home, for example, an effort should be made to identify indoor air sources that may be possible causes. Some effects may be made worse by an inadequate supply of outdoor air or from the heating, cooling, or humidity conditions prevalent in the home.
Long-term effects
Other health effects may show up either years after exposure has occurred or only after long or repeated periods of exposure. These effects, which include some respiratory diseases, heart disease, and cancer, can be severely debilitating or fatal. It is prudent to try to improve the indoor air quality in your home even if symptoms are not noticeable.
While pollutants commonly found in indoor air are responsible for many harmful effects, there is considerable uncertainty about what concentrations or periods of exposure are necessary to produce specific health problems. People also react very differently to exposure to indoor air pollutants. |
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Term
| Health Effects of Water Pollution |
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Definition
Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmitted through faecal waste. Pathogens – which include virus, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms – are disease-producing agents found in the faeces of infected persons. These diseases are more prevalent in areas with poor sanitary conditions. These pathogens travel through water sources and interfuses directly through persons handling food and water. Since these diseases are highly infectious, extreme care and hygiene should be maintained by people looking after an infected patient. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are the more common water-borne diseases that affect large populations in the tropical regions.
A large number of chemicals that either exist naturally in the land or are added due to human activity dissolve in the water, thereby contaminating it and leading to various diseases.
Pesticides. The organophosphates and the carbonates present in pesticides affect and damage the nervous system and can cause cancer. Some of the pesticides contain carcinogens that exceed recommended levels. They contain chlorides that cause reproductive and endocrinal damage.
Lead. Lead is hazardous to health as it accumulates in the body and affects the central nervous system. Children and pregnant women are most at risk.
Fluoride. Excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth and damage to the spinal cord and other crippling diseases.
Nitrates. Drinking water that gets contaminated with nitrates can prove fatal especially to infants that drink formula milk as it restricts the amount of oxygen that reaches the brain causing the ‘blue baby’ syndrome. It is also linked to digestive tract cancers. It causes algae to bloom resulting in eutrophication in surface water.
Petrochemicals. Benzene and other petrochemicals can cause cancer even at low exposure levels.
Chlorinated solvents. These are linked to reproduction disorders and to some cancers.
Arsenic. Arsenic poisoning through water can cause liver and nervous system damage, vascular diseases and also skin cancer.
Other heavy metals. –Heavy metals cause damage to the nervous system and the kidney, and other metabolic disruptions.
Salts. It makes the fresh water unusable for drinking and irrigation purposes.
Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhoea, skin irritation, respiratory problems, and other diseases, depending on the pollutant that is in the water body. Stagnant water and other untreated water provide a habitat for the mosquito and a host of other parasites and insects that cause a large number of diseases especially in the tropical regions. Among these, malaria is undoubtedly the most widely distributed and causes most damage to human health. |
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Term
| Health Effects of Water Pollution 2 |
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Definition
While the most common water pollution diseases involve poisoning episodes affecting the digestive system and human infectious diseases, water pollution may cause a large variety of health diseases including:
Infectious diseases caused by pathogens (usually microorganisms) from animal fecal origins, of which the most common occur in developing countries involving:
Typhoid
Giardiasis
Amoebiasis
Ascariasis
Hookworm
Diseases caused by polluted beach water including:
Gastroenteritis
Dhiarrhea
Encephalitis
Stomach craps and aches
Vomiting
Hepatitis
Respiratory infections
Liver damage and even cancer (due to DNA damage) – caused by a series of chemicals (e.g., chlorinated solvents, MTBE)
Kidney damage caused by a series of chemicals
Neurological problems - damage of the nervous system – usually due to the presence of chemicals such as pesticides (i.e., DDT)
Reproductive and endocrine damage including interrupted sexual development, inability to breed, degraded immune function, decreased fertility and increase in some types of cancers – caused by a series of chemicals including endocrine disruptors – which
Thyroid system disorders (a common example is exposure through perchlorate which is a chemical contaminating large water bodies such as Colorado River)
Increased water pollution creates breeding grounds for malaria-carrying mosquitoes killing 1.2-2.7 million people a year
A series of less serious health effects could be associated by bathing into contaminated water (i.e, polluted beach water) including:
Rashes
Ear aches
Pink eyes
Water pollution can affect us:
Directly – through consumption or bathing in a polluted stream (that involve consumption of municipal water, as well as bathing in polluted lakes or beach water).
Indirectly – through the consumption of vegetables irrigated with contaminated water, as well as of fish or other animals that live in the polluted water or consume animals grown in the polluted water. This is many times more dangerous than being directly affected through consumption of water because some pollutants bioaccumulate in fish and living organisms (their concentration in fish could be several orders of magnitude higher than their water concentration). Additionally the toxins from the brown tide are strong and can travel via air affecting homeowners close to the beach. |
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Term
| Health Effects of Smoking |
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Definition
Smoking harms nearly every organ of the body. Smoking causes many diseases and reduces the health of smokers in general.1
Smoking and Death
•The adverse health effects from cigarette smoking account for an estimated 443,000 deaths, or nearly one of every five deaths, each year in the United States.2,3
•More deaths are caused each year by tobacco use than by all deaths from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries, suicides, and murders combined.2,4
•Smoking causes an estimated 90% of all lung cancer deaths in men and 80% of all lung cancer deaths in women.1
•An estimated 90% of all deaths from chronic obstructive lung disease are caused by smoking.1
Smoking and Increased Health Risks
Compared with nonsmokers, smoking is estimated to increase the risk of—
•coronary heart disease by 2 to 4 times,1,5
•stroke by 2 to 4 times,1,6
•men developing lung cancer by 23 times,1
•women developing lung cancer by 13 times,1 and
•dying from chronic obstructive lung diseases (such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema) by 12 to 13 times.1
Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease
•Smoking causes coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death in the United States.1
•Cigarette smoking causes reduced circulation by narrowing the blood vessels (arteries) and puts smokers at risk of developing peripheral vascular disease (i.e., obstruction of the large arteries in the arms and legs that can cause a range of problems from pain to tissue loss or gangrene).1,7
•Smoking causes abdominal aortic aneurysm (i.e., a swelling or weakening of the main artery of the body—the aorta—where it runs through the abdomen).1
Smoking and Respiratory Disease
•Smoking causes lung cancer.1,2
•Smoking causes lung diseases (e.g., emphysema, bronchitis, chronic airway obstruction) by damaging the airways and alveoli (i.e., small air sacs) of the lungs.1,2
Smoking and Cancer
Smoking causes the following cancers:1
•Acute myeloid leukemia
•Bladder cancer
•Cancer of the cervix
•Cancer of the esophagus
•Kidney cancer
•Cancer of the larynx (voice box)
•Lung cancer
•Cancer of the oral cavity (mouth)
•Pancreatic cancer
•Cancer of the pharynx (throat)
•Stomach cancer
Smoking and Other Health Effects
Smoking has many adverse reproductive and early childhood effects, including increased risk for—
•infertility,
•preterm delivery,
•stillbirth,
•low birth weight, and
•sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).1,8 |
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Term
| Health Effects of Lead Contamination |
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Definition
Symptoms of Lead Exposure
Lead poisoning can be a serious public health threat with no unique signs or symptoms. Early symptoms of lead exposure may include:
•persistent fatigue
•irritability
•loss of appetite
•stomach discomfort and/or constipation
•reduced attention span
•insomnia
Failure to treat lead poisoning in the early stages can cause long-term or permanent health damage, but because of the general nature of symptoms at early stages, lead poisoning is often not suspected.
In adults, lead poisoning can cause:
•poor muscle coordination
•nerve damage to the sense organs and nerves controlling the body
•increased blood pressure
•hearing and vision impairment
•reproductive problems (e.g., decreased sperm count)
•retarded fetal development even at relatively low exposure levels
In children, lead poisoning can cause:
•damage to the brain and nervous system
•behavioral problems
•anemia
•liver and kidney damage
•hearing loss
•hyperactivity
•developmental delays
•in extreme cases, death
•irritability or behavioral problems
•difficulty concentrating
•headaches
•loss of appetite
•weight loss
•sluggishness or fatigue
•abdominal pain
•vomiting or nausea
•constipation
•pallor (pale skin) from anemia
•metallic taste in mouth
•muscle and joint weakness or pain
•seizures
Although the effects of lead exposure are a potential concern for all humans, young children (less than seven years old) are most at risk (Reagan and Silbergeld, 1989). This increased vulnerability results from a combination of the following factors:
•Children typically have higher intake rates (per unit body weight) for environmental media (such as soil, dust, food, water, air, and paint) than adults, since they are more likely to play in dirt and put their hands and other objects in their mouths;
•Children tend to absorb a higher fraction of ingested lead from the gastrointestinal tract than adults;
•Children tend to be more susceptible than adults to the adverse neurological and developmental effects of lead; and
•Nutritional deficiencies of iron or calcium, which are common in children, may facilitate lead absorption and exacerbate the toxic effects of lead.
The national average blood lead levels in children have dropped over time as our understanding of lead risk has evolved, and as efforts are undertaken to reduce exposure to lead. While banning of lead paint and lead in gasoline were national efforts to stop childhood lead poisoning, contaminated sites require site-specific cleanups to reduce exposure to populations nearby.
Treatment
Treatment for lead poisoning varies depending on how much lead is in the blood. Small amounts often can be treated rather easily; the most important part of therapy is reduction of lead exposure. Gradually, as the body naturally eliminates the lead, the level of lead in the blood will fall.
Kids with severe cases and extremely high lead levels in their blood will be hospitalized to receive a medication called a chelating agent, which chemically binds with lead, making it weaker so the body can get rid of it naturally.
Calcium, iron, and vitamin C are important parts of a healthy diet and also help to decrease the way the body absorbs lead. Your doctor may recommend your child take supplements if there's not enough intake in his or her diet.
All siblings of a child found to have lead poisoning also should be tested. Doctors will report cases of lead poisoning to the public health department
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Term
| Health Effects of UV Exposure |
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Definition
Skin Cancer
Each year, more new cases of skin cancer are diagnosed in the U.S. than new cases of breast, prostate, lung, and colon cancer combined. One in five Americans will develop skin cancer in their lifetime. One American dies from skin cancer every hour. Unprotected exposure to UV radiation is the most preventable risk factor for skin cancer.
Melanoma
Melanoma, the most serious form of skin cancer, is now one of the most common cancers among adolescents and young adults ages 15-29. While melanoma accounts for about three percent of skin cancer cases, it causes more than 75 percent of skin cancer deaths. UV exposure and sunburns, particularly during childhood, are risk factors for the disease. Not all melanomas are exclusively sun-related—other possible influences include genetic factors and immune system deficiencies.
Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers
Non-melanoma skin cancers are less deadly than melanomas. Nevertheless, they can spread if left untreated, causing disfigurement and more serious health problems. There are two primary types of non-melanoma skin cancers: basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas. If caught and treated early, these two cancers are rarely fatal. Between 40 and 50 percent of Americans who live to age 65 will have one of these types of skin cancer at least once.
•Basal cell carcinomasare the most common type of skin cancer tumors. They usually appear as small, fleshy bumps or nodules on the head and neck, but can occur on other skin areas. Basal cell carcinoma grows slowly, and it rarely spreads to other parts of the body. It can, however, penetrate to the bone and cause considerable damage.
•Squamous cell carcinomasare tumors that may appear as nodules or as red, scaly patches. This cancer can develop into large masses, and unlike basal cell carcinoma, it can spread to other parts of the body.
Other Skin Damage
Other UV-related skin disorders include actinic keratoses and premature aging of the skin. Actinic keratoses are skin growths that occur on body areas exposed to the sun. The face, hands, forearms, and the “V” of the neck are especially susceptible to this type of lesion. Although premalignant, actinic keratoses are a risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma. Look for raised, reddish, rough-textured growths and seek prompt medical attention if you discover them.
Chronic exposure to the sun also causes premature aging, which over time can make the skin become thick, wrinkled, and leathery. Since it occurs gradually, often manifesting itself many years after the majority of a person’s sun exposure, premature aging is often regarded as an unavoidable, normal part of growing older. However, up to 90 percent of the visible skin changes commonly attributed to aging are caused by the sun. With proper protection from UV radiation, most premature aging of the skin can be avoided.
Cataracts and Other Eye Damage
Cataracts are a form of eye damage in which a loss of transparency in the lens of the eye clouds vision. If left untreated, cataracts can lead to blindness. Research has shown that UV radiation increases the likelihood of certain cataracts. Although curable with modern eye surgery, cataracts diminish the eyesight of millions of Americans and cost billions of dollars in medical care each year.
Other kinds of eye damage include pterygium (tissue growth that can block vision), skin cancer around the eyes, and degeneration of the macula (the part of the retina where visual perception is most acute). All of these problems can be lessened with proper eye protection. Look for sunglasses, glasses or contact lenses if you wear them, that offer 99 to 100 percent UV protection.
Immune Suppression
Scientists have found that overexposure to UV radiation may suppress proper functioning of the body’s immune system and the skin’s natural defenses. For example, the skin normally mounts a defense against foreign invaders such as cancers and infections. But overexposure to UV radiation can weaken the immune system, reducing the skin’s ability to protect against these invaders.
Immuno-suppression and Infectious Disease
Hanging out in the sun can also have negative impacts on the immune system - the body's natural defence against disease. UV can suppress resistance to bacterial agents and enhance risk of infection, including meningitis. In addition, UV radiation can cause smallpox lesions to grow and reactivate Herpes simplex Virus I and II (manifested in cold sores).
Vitamin D3 Production
Vitamin D3 helps the body absorb calcium and phosphorus and plays a crucial role in skeletal development, immune function and blood cell formation.
Exposure to the UVB part of sunlight is essential to trigger vitamin D3 formation in the skin. UVB converts 7-dihydroxy-cholesterol into vitamin D3, which is than converted by the liver and the kidney into its active form. Dietary sources of vitamin D3 include fish, eggs, and fortified foods (i.e. milk, flour and cereals).
For most people, vitamin D3 deficiency is unlikely. However, during the winter months (i.e. October-March), solar UVB levels in Canada are not sufficient enough for vitamin D3 formation in the skin. Some highly pigmented individuals, adults over the age of 50, breastfeeding women, and those living in higher altitudes are at higher risk of lower blood levels of vitamin D3. They should consult a health care practitioner to see if vitamin D3 supplements are necessary.
Photosensitivity
An abnormally high sensitivity of the skin or eyes to UV radiation exposure. The skin can burn more easily increasing your risk of skin cancer.
Photosensitivity is caused by ingesting, inhaling or coming into skin contact with photosensitisers – substances that cause photosensitivity. Photosensitisers include industrial chemicals, drugs, plants and some essential oils and fragrances. Some medications can cause photosensitivity.
Treatment of Skin Conditions
UV radiation has been used to successfully treat a number of diseases, including rickets, psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, lupus vulgaris and vitiligo. |
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Term
| Health Effects of Drought |
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Definition
Public Health Implications
The possible public health implications of drought include
•compromised quantity and quality of drinking water;
•increased recreational risks;
•effects on air quality;
•diminished living conditions related to energy, air quality, and sanitation and hygiene;
•compromised food and nutrition; and
•increased incidence of illness and disease.
The health implications of drought are numerous and far reaching. Some drought-related health effects are experienced in the short-term and can be directly observed and measured. However, the slow rise or chronic nature of drought can result in longer term, indirect health implications that are not always easy to anticipate or monitor. |
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Term
| Health Effects of Food Poisoning |
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Definition
Food poisoning most commonly causes:
abdominal cramps,
vomiting and
diarrhea.
This can cause significant amounts of fluid loss and with nausea and vomiting, it may be difficult to replace that fluid, leading to dehydration. In developing countries where infectious epidemics cause diarrheal illnesses , thousands of people die because of dehydration.
As noted in the section above, other organ systems may be infected and affected by food poisoning. Symptoms will depend upon what organ system is involved (for example, encephalopathy due to brain infection). |
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Term
| Health Effects of Food Poisoning 2 |
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Definition
Food poisoning occurs after eating food contaminated by bacteria. The symptoms of food poisoning are basically the same as those of stomach flu: abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fever. But if your child and other people who have eaten the same food all have the same symptoms, the problem is more likely to be food poisoning than stomach flu. The bacteria that cause food poisoning cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted, so your child won’t know when she is eating them. These organisms include:
Staphylococcus Aureus (Staph)
Staph contamination is the leading cause of food poisoning. These bacteria ordinarily cause skin infections, such as pimples or boils, and are transferred when foods are handled by an infected person. When food is left at a specific temperature (100 degrees Fahrenheit [37.8 Celsius])—generally one that is lower than the temperature needed to keep food hot—the staph bacteria multiply and produce a poison (toxin) that ordinary cooking will not destroy. The symptoms begin one to six hours after eating the contaminated food, and the discomfort usually lasts about one day.
Salmonella
Salmonella bacteria (there are many types) are another major cause of food poisoning in the United States. The most commonly contaminated foods are raw meat (including chicken), raw or undercooked eggs, and unpasteurized milk. Fortunately, salmonella are killed when the food is cooked thoroughly. Symptoms caused by salmonella poisoning start sixteen to forty-eight hours after eating, and may last two to seven days.
E. Coli
Escherichia coli (or E. coli) is a group of bacteria that normally live in the intestines of children and adults. A few strains of these bacteria can cause food-related illnesses. Undercooked ground beef is a common source of E. coli, although raw produce and contaminated water have caused some outbreaks.
Symptoms of an infection typically include diarrhea (which can range from mild to severe) to abdominal pain, and in some cases nausea and vomiting. Some E. coli outbreaks have been quite severe and have even caused deaths in rare instances. The optimal treatment for an E. coli–related illness is rest and fluids (to counteract dehydration). But if symptoms are more severe, you should have a discussion with your pediatrician.
Clostridium Perfringens
Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) is a bacterium frequently found in soil, sewage, and the intestines of humans and animals. It usually is transferred by the food handler to the food itself, where it multiplies and produces its toxin. C. perfringens often is found in school cafeterias because it thrives in food that is served in quantity and left out for long periods at room temperature or on a steam table. The foods most often involved are cooked beef, poultry, gravy, fish, casseroles, stews, and bean burritos. The symptoms of this type of poisoning start eight to twenty-four hours after eating, and can last from one to several days.
Shigellosis
Shigella infections, or shigellosis, are intestinal infections caused by one of many types of shigella bacteria. These bacteria can be transmitted through contaminated food and drinking water, as well as via poor hygiene (in child care centers, for example). The organisms invade the lining of the intestine, and can lead to symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, and cramps.
Shigellosis and its symptoms usually subside after about five to seven days. In the meantime, your child should consume extra fluids and (if your pediatrician recommends it) a rehydrating solution. In severe cases, your doctor may prescribe antibiotics, which can shorten the duration and intensity of the infection.
Campylobacter
One form of infectious food poisoning is caused by the bacteria Campylobacter, which a child may ingest when he eats raw or undercooked chicken, or drinks unpasteurized milk or contaminated water. This infection typically leads to symptoms such as watery (and sometimes bloody) diarrhea, cramps, and fever, about two to five days after the germs are consumed in food.
To diagnose a Campylobacter infection, your doctor will have a culture of a stool specimen analyzed in the laboratory. Fortunately, most cases of this infection run their course without any formal treatment, other than making sure that your child drinks plenty of fluids in order to replace the fluids lost from diarrhea. When symptoms are severe, however, your pediatrician may prescribe antibiotics. In most cases, your child will be back to normal in about two to five days.
Botulism
This is the deadly food poisoning caused by Clostridium botulinum. Although these bacteria normally can be found in soil and water, illness from them is extremely rare because they need very special conditions in order to multiply and produce poison. Clostridium botulinum grows best without oxygen and in certain chemical conditions, which explains why improperly canned food is most often contaminated and the low-acid vegetables, such as green beans, corn, beets, and peas, are most often involved. Honey also can be contaminated and frequently causes severe illness, particularly in children under one year of age. This is the reason why honey should never be given to an infant under the age of one year.
Botulism attacks the nervous system and causes double vision, droopy eyelids, decreased muscle tone, and difficulty in swallowing and breathing. It also can cause vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. The symptoms develop in eighteen to thirty-six hours and can last weeks to months. Without treatment, botulism can cause death. Even with treatment, it can cause nerve damage.
Cryptosporidiosis
In very uncommon situations, watery diarrhea, low-grade fever, and abdominal pain may be caused by an infection known as cryptosporidium. This infection is of special concern in children who do not have a normal immune system.
Other sources of food poisoning include poisonous mushrooms, contaminated fish products, and foods with special seasonings. Young children do not care for most of these foods and so will eat very little of them. However, it still is very important to be aware of the risk. If your child has unusual gastrointestinal symptoms, and there is any chance she might have eaten contaminated or poisonous foods, call your pediatrician.
Treatment
In most cases of food-borne illnesses, all that’s necessary is to limit your child’s eating and drinking for a while. The problem will then usually resolve itself. Infants can tolerate three to four hours without food or liquids; older children, six to eight. If your child is still vomiting or her diarrhea has not decreased significantly during this time, call your pediatrician.
Also notify the doctor if your child:
•Shows signs of dehydration
•Has bloody diarrhea
•Has continuous diarrhea with a large volume of water in the stool, or diarrhea alternating with constipation
•May have been poisoned by mushrooms
•Suddenly becomes weak, numb, confused, or restless, and feels tingling, acts drunkenly, or has hallucinations or difficulty breathing
Tell the doctor the symptoms your child is having, what foods she has eaten recently, and where they were obtained. The treatment your pediatrician gives will depend on your child’s condition and the type of food poisoning. If she is dehydrated, fluid replacement will be prescribed. Sometimes antibiotics are helpful, but only if the bacteria are known. Antihistamines help if the illness is due to an allergic reaction to a food, toxin, or seasoning. If your child has botulism, she will require hospitalization and intensive care. |
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