1 - Epithelium

2 - Lamina Propria

3 - Muscularis Mucosa (Thin smooth muscle layer)

Double layer hanging over itself (4 layers) of the peritoneum hanging like an apron over transverse colon, small intestines, lateral and inferior borders of the stomach. 

Contains large amounts of adipose tissue and lymph nodes. 

Functions as an energy reserve. Provides insulation and padding for abdominal organs. And reduces heat loss in the area. 

Located above on structures above the diaphragm and the rectum. 

Functions to attach structures to other adjacent structures to hold them in place.

Deep to the muscosa, 2nd layer.

Contains areoloar Connective Tissue w/ blood vessels and esophageal glands.

Double sheet of peritneum folded over stomach and duodenum, attaching from the liver.

Function to stablize the stomach and provide access route for blood vessels to and from the liver. 

1 - Stratified Squamous Epithelium

2 - Lamina Propria

3 - Muscularis Mucosa

1 - Voluntary Stage - Bolus pushed into oropharynx by tongue pushing it against hard pallate. 

2 - Phayngeal Stage - Nasopharynx is Sealed off by the soft pallate. Pharynx is elevated, which results in sealing off the glottis by the epiglottis. Bolus is directed down over closed glottis by pharyngeal peristalsis and into the esphogus.

3 - Esophogeal Stage - After bolus is pushed into esphogus through the upper esophogeal sphincter, it is pushed by esophogeal peristalsis down the length of the esphogus through the lower esphogeal sphincter and into the stomach.

Muscularis Layer of Esophagus

(Layers and type of tissue)

Inner circular muscle layer

Outer longitudinal layer

Upper 1/3 is composed entirely of skeletal muscle

Middle 1/3 is composed of a mixture of skeletal muscle and smooth muscle 

Lower 1/3 is composed entirely of smooth muscle

Cephalic Phase of the Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility

(How is it initiated? What is the neuronal pathway? What is the net effect?)

First phase in the regulation of gastric secretions of motility.

Sight, smell, taste or thought of food initiates it. 

Sense receptors stimulate Cerebral Cortex, which triggers medulla oblongata, which sends a signal down parasympathetic neurons ot the submucosal plexus of the stomach. 

Net Effects -

1 - Increases stomach motility.

2- Stimulates gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen, HCl and mucous into stomach.

3 - Stimulates secretion of gastrin into blood. 

Gastric Phase of the Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility

(How is it initiated? How is it continued? How is it inhibiated? What are the net effects?)

Once food enters stomach strech receptors are stimulated by the distenstion of the stomach (from food entering it) and chemoreceptors are stimulated by the lowered pH levels in the stomach (from food entering and buffering the acid)

These 2 things activate a neural feedback loop that continues gastrin (continued secretion is stimulated by strech receptors activating neurons which then release ACh, which stimulates G Cells to release Gastrin) and HCl secretions as well as  continued increasing motility of stomach that were initiated in the cephalic phase. 

This continues until the streach receptors notice a relief of the distension of the stomach (from food that has been mixed to chyme in stomach leaving stomach and entering duodenum) and the chemoreceptors of the stomach noticing a lowered pH level (from food already being digested and not buffering the acid as much or at all, as well as less food being in the stomach)  

Net effects - 

1 - Creates optimum acidic enviroment for digestion.

2 - Continues the transition of the ingested food to chyme. 

3 - Starts gastric emptying. 

Gastric Emptying

(Which phases of regulation is it overlapping between? What intiates it? How does it happen? What is the net effect?)

Overlapping between gastric and intestinal phases  of the regulation of gastric secretion and motilit (events happening at the same time).

Strech receptors, partially digested protein, alcohol and caffeine intiate gastrin secretion to increase and stimulate parasympathetic nerve impulses. 

Increased gastrin secretion and nerve impulses stimulate the contraction the lower esphageal sphinctor, increase stomach motility, and relax the pyloric sphinctor. 

Net effect - Emptying of chyme into the duodenum of the small intestine. 

Intestinal Phase of the Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility

(How is it activated? What does it inhibit and how?  What is the net effect?)

Upper Esophageal Sphincter

(Function & Location)

Narrowing of esophagus at the entrance to esophagus. 

Regulates the entrance of food into the esophagus. 

Chemical Digestion Of Lipids

(Describe the enzymes in each area of the GI tract that work to break down triglycerides into monoglycerides and free fatty acids) 

Lingual lipase secreted by the tongue starts the break down of triglycerides.
Lingual lipase continues to work in stomach b/c it still works in acidic enviroments.

Gastric lipase is also added to the equation in the stomach. Both lingual and gastric lipase work to begin the break down of triglycerides. 

Most digestion occurs in small intestines. Bile salts from the bile that was stored and concentrated in gallbladder and created in the liver emulsify tryiglycerides so that the surface area of the globules is greater, making it easier to pancreatic lipase to cleave the remaining triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides.

The fatty acids and monoglycerides are then absorbed in the small intestines.

Chemical Digestion of RNA and DNA

Pancreatic juice contains ribonucleases and deoxyribonucleases that cleave RNA and DNA into their subunit - nucleotides in the small intestines

Further digestion by nucleotidases and phosphatases (both brush border enzymes) breaks the nucleotides down into pentose, nitrogenous bases and phosphates. 

Amino Acid, Dipeptide and Tripeptide Absorption

(Describe the mechanism of absorption, What percentage of overall consumed proteins end up being absorbed? Of that percentage, what is the breakdown percentage of the sources that it came from?)

Absorbed through active transport. 

95 - 98% of the overall proteins are absorbed. Of that, 50% come from food and 50% come from digestive juices and dead cells.

Absorption of Monosaccharides

(What is the mechanism of absorption? How much of ingested is actually absorbed?)

Faciliated diffusion or secondary active transport coupled to Na+ is the mechanism of absorption. 

All (100%) ingested monosaccharides are usually absorbed. 

Lipid Absorption

(Describe stages required to absorb fatty acids)

Bile emulifies fatty acids and turns them into micelles. Stays in this form as they are taken to apicial surface of epithelial cells where they diffuse via simple diffusion into cell. 

Within epithelial cell monoglycerides are further digested into fatty acids and glycerol and recombine into tryglycerides that are aggregated into globules (chylomicrons) which enter lacteals, empty into lymph nodes and eventually enter venous blood.

Liver cells or adipose tissue cells remove chylomicrons, break them down again, and transport them to whereever they will be stored or used.

Absorption of Electrolytes

(Na+, Bicarbonate, Cl-, I-, Nitrate Ions, Fe+, K+ and Mg+)

Na+ actively transported via Na+/K+ pumps after moving in via diffusion and secondary transport.

Bicarbonate, Cl-, I- and nitrate ions passively follow Na+ or diffuse via active transport. 

Fe+, K+, Mg+ and phosphate ions are actively transported.

Peridontal Ligament

(Location and Function)

Exocrine Cells of the Pancreas

(What are the called? What do they produce?)

Endocrine Cells of the Pancreas

(What are they called? What do they produce?)

Contain Mucosal folds (called villi) with microscopic folds of microvilli covering those.

Also deep crevices between villi called the crypts of Liberkuhn with paneth and enetroendocrine cells at the bottom of these crypts. 

The lamina propria contains blood vessels and lacteals that function to absorb nutrients and deliever them to the liver. 

Duodenum - first 12 inches (also the shortest section)

Jejunum - middle 1 meter

Ileum - last 2 meters (also the longest section)

Lacteals

(What are they? Location and Function)

Crypts of Liberkuhn

(What are they? Location? And what kind of cells do they contain?

Deep crevices between the villi in the small intestines.

They contain paneth cells and enetroendocrine cells 

Entroendocrine Cells

(What do they Secrete? Where are they located?)

Located at the bottom of the crypts of Liberkuhn in the small intestines. 

They secrete secretin, CCK and Glucose-Independent Insulinotropic Peptide (GIP)

Brunner's Glands

(Where are they located? What do they Secrete?)

Located in the submuscosa of the duodenum of the small intestines.

They produce alkaline mucous when acidic chyme enters the duodenum to neutralize it and protect the walls of the small intestines. 

Paneth Cells

(Where are they located? What do they produce?)

Located at the bottom of the Crypts of Lieberkuhn in the small intestines.

They produce Lysozyme.

Segmentations

(What is it? What does it do?)

Final Digestion occurs via bacterial action. 

Final Absorption of things that remain such as water, bile salts and vitamins.

Haustral Churning

(What is it? How does it work?)

How fecal matter is moved in the colon.

Each Haustra is relaxed until it is full, then when there is enough distension, it squeezes and pushes contents into the next haustra.

Haustra 

(What are they? Function?)

Portions of thickened longitudinal muscularis that run along the length of the large intestines.

They pull the colon into the pouches known as haustra.

Submusosa of the Large Intestines

(what special structure(s) are in it?)

Mucosa of the Large Intestines 

(What special features?)

No villi or circular folds. 

Epithelium is simple columnar epithelium.

Contains Crypts of Lieberkuhn (flat surface except for this)

Has abundent goblet cells. 

Peyer's patches present in basal lamina.

Internal Anal Sphincter

(What is it? Under voluntary or Involuntary control?)

Circular muscle layer of muscularis in the rectum that allows feces to move into anal canal.

Not under voluntary control. 

External Anal Sphincter

(What is it? Voluntary or Involuntary Control?)

Ring of skeletal muscle fibers encircling the anus.

Under voluntary control.

Rectum 

(Functions)

Ascending

Transverse

Descending

Sigmoid

Cecum

(What is it? Where is it? What does it attach to?)

First part of the large intestines. Material entering large intestines from ileum enters here through the ileocecal valve. 

Open end of cecum attached to the colon.

Appendix

(Location and Function)

Hangs off of cecum. 

Functions to repopulate the bacteria of the colon in case they are all wiped out. 

Completion of Nutrient Absorption

Production of certain vitamins

Formation of feces

Explusion of feces from the body

2, 1, 2, 3

In each quadrant of mouth (in adults) there are:

2 Incisors

1 Cuspid/Canine

2 premolars/bicuspid

3 molars

Total of 32 teeth in mouth.

Deciduous Teeth

(What are they? How many in total? When are they aquired? When are they lost?)

They are baby teeth. There are 20 teeth total.

They begin to grow in at around 6 months of age and continue growing in until about 2 years old. 

They begin to be lost at 6 years old and continue to be lost until about 12 years old.

Molars

(Shape, # of roots, Function)

Large, flattened crowns with prominent ridges.

They crush, mash and grind food during mastication

Have 3 or more roots.

Biscuspids/Premolars

(shape, # of roots, function)

Flattened crowns with prominent ridges

They crush, mash and grind food during mastication

Have 1-2 roots.

Cuspids/Canines

(shape, # of roots, function)

Conical shaped with a sharp ridgeline and pointed tip

They tear/slash food during mastication.

Have one root.

Incisors

(shape, # of roots, functions)

Blade shaped

Useful for clipping or cutting food during mastication

Have 1 root

Dentes

And what are they attached to?

Teeth

Attached to mandibular and maxillary alveolar sockets

1 - Flushes oral surfaces to keep moist and clean

2 - Buffers pH of mouth

3 - Prevents build up of acids produced from bacterial action

4 - Controls bacteria populations because of lysozyme and antibodies

5 - Lubricates mouth and food

6 - Moistens food

7 - Initates chemical digestion of carbs

8 - Dissolves chemicals to stimulate taste buds

Mucins

(What are they? What is there function?)

99.5% water - which is a medium for dissolving chemcials in food for tasting and starting digestive reactions

0.5% Solutes - which include Na+, K+, Cl-, Bicarbonate Ions, Phosphate, Dissolved Gases, Organic Substrates, Lysozyme, and Salivary Amylase

Sublingual Salivary Glands

(Location, Secretions, Where it Empties, Secretion account for what percentage of saliva?)

Located under tounge.

Secretes a mucous secretion and a serous secretion.

Secretions empty along either side of lingual frenulum.

Secretions account for 5% of saliva.

Submandibular Salivary Glands

(Location, Secretions, Where Secretions Empty. Accounts for what percentage of saliva?)

Located along the inner surface of mandible.

Secretes a serous secretion and a mucus secretion. 

Secretions empty along both sides of the lingual frenulum. 

Secretions account for 70% of saliva.

Parotid Salivary Glands

(Location, Secretion Type, Where Secretions Empty. Accounts for what percentage of saliva?)

Located inferior to zygomatic arch.

Secretes a serous secretion.

Secretions empty into vestibule.

Secretions accounts for 25% of saliva

Cardia

Fundus

Body 

Pyloris

Mucosa of the Stomach

(Special Features)

Epithelium is Simple Columnar Epithelium

Lamina Propria

Muscularis Muscosa

Epithelial cells form gastric pits with gastric glands at the bottom.

Muscularis of the Stomach

(Special Features)

Inner oblique layer

Middle circular layer

Outer longitudinal layer

Chief Cells

(Location and Secretion Type)

Located at the base of the gastric gland

Produces pepsinogen and Gastic Lipase

Parietal Cells

(Location and Secretion Type)

Secrete Intrinsic Factor and HCl

Located in the Proximal Portions of the Gastric Glands

D Cells

(Location and Secretions)

Located in pyloric glands in pyloric antrum

Producea and secretes somatostatin

G Cells

(Location and Secretions)

Located in pyloric antrum in Gastric Pits of stomach

Produce and Secrete Gastrin

They secrete H+ and Cl- seperately. 

1) CO2 diffuses into cell, combines with H2O and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) 

2) Carbonic Acid dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and a hydrogen Ion (H+). Bicarbonate Ion moves into blood in exchange for a Chloride Ion (Cl-). Chloride Ion diffuses into lumen of Stomach.

3) H+ (from the dissocation of carbonic acid previously mentioned) diffuses into lumen of stomach in exchange for a pottasium ion (K+)

1 - Kills Microbes

2 - Denatures Proteins

3 - Stimulates pancreatic secretions

4 - Activates pepsinogen to it's active form, pepsin

Absorptive State

(What Happens in this state? What is the state of blood glucose in this state? How does body respond?)

Ingested nutrients enter into bloodstream and a dealt with in accordance to the current needs of the body. 

Blood glucose levels are high in this state, thus pancreas in stimulated by glucose-dependent insolinotropic peptide (GIP) to secrete insulin. Insulin then increases enzyme activity for anabolism and storage of nutrients. 

Can be used to create ATP (glycolysis, kreb's cycle and electron transport chain).

Excess stored in liver as glycogen

Or can be turned into fatty acids or triglycerides to be stored in liver. Although some of them are packaged into VLDL and taken to adipose tissue to be stored.

Most stored in adipose tissue. 

Most deaminated to keto acids in liver, which can then enter the Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP, or undergo glucogenesis or lipogenesis. 

Some can be used to synthesis new proteins in liver.

Some can be used to synthesis new proteins in body cells for repair. 

Postabsorptive State

(When is body in this state? What is the main goal of this state? Why is this goal important?)

Absorption of ingested nutrients is complete. 

Main goal = maintain blood glucose levels. 

It is important to maintain blood glucose levels because the body needs the glucose to continue functioning.

- Glycogen stores in liver broken down. 

- Lipolysis

- Glucogenesis using latic acid or amino acids

- Fatty Acid Oxidation

- Oxidation of Amino Acids, Latic Acid, and Ketone Bodies 

- Breakdown of Muscle Glycogen

Lipogenesis

(What is it? What molecular pathways do Glucose and Amino Acids undergo? What stimulates this process to occur?)

Synthesizing triglycerides from excessive carbs, proteins and lipids. 

Glucose coverted to glycerol

or Glucose converted to acetyl CoA, then converted to fatty acids 

Amino Acids converted to Acetyl CoA, which are then converted to tryglycerides.

Insulin stimulates this process to occur.

Ketogenesis

(What is it? When does it happen? Where does it happen? What is it used for?)

Acetyl CoA being used to form ketone bodies in the liver when large amounts of Acetyl CoA are produced.

Ketone bodies are then released into blood and travel to skeletal muscles where they are converted back to Acetyl CoA and enter the Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP.

Ketogenesis

(Describe Molecular Process)

Acetyl CoA molecules combine to form acetoacetic acid.

Acetoacetic acid converted to beta-hydroxybutric acid and some acetone (which are what ketone bodies are)

Lipolysis

(What is it? What happens to the products of it? What hormones stimulate this process to happen?)

Catabolic reaction where triglycerides split into glycerol and fatty acids by the actions of lipases. 

Glycerol can be turned into Acetyl-CoA via gluconeogenesis and enter into Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP or undergo ketogenesis.

Fatty Acids can undergo beta-oxidation to be turned into acetyl CoA and enter Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP or undergo ketogenesis.

Hormone that stimulate this reaction to occur are mainly epinephrine, norepinephrine. But TH and cortisol can also stimulate.

Proteins are never stored.

Amino Acids can be used to synthesize new proteins 

Or oxidized to produce ATP

1 - Synthesis of glycogen

2 - Dephosphorylation to glucose and released into blood.

3 - Precursor to ribose-5-phosphate (DNA and RNA)

4 - Glycolysis

1 - production of latic acid

2 - production of the amino acid alanine through transamination

3 - gluconeogenesis

High Density Lipoprotein (HDL's)

(Density of protein and cholesterol? What do they do? Good or Bad?)

Mainly made of protein, some cholesterol.

They remove excess cholesterol from the body cells and blood and take to liver for elimination

They are considered "Good" cholesterol

Low Densisty Lipoprotein (LDL's)

Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL's)

(Density of protein and cholesterol? What do they do? Good or Bad?)

Mainly cholesterol, some protein.

They are the main cholesterol for cell membrane maintanance. 

Excessive cholestoral in and around smooth muscle fibers in arteries can cause heart attacks in plagues get free

Considered "Bad" cholesterol.

Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL's)

(Composition? Function?)

Very little protein, mostly triglycerides and cholesterol. 

Made by liver to transport triglycerides synthesized by the liver to adipose tissue for storage.

Lowest Density Lipoprotein

Made of mostly triglycerides with some cholesterol and very little protein.

Enter lacteals through GI tract and eventually enter venous blood.

Circulate through adipose tissue and fatty acids are cleaved off from it's triglycerides for storage. 

Liver cells also remove for storage. 

Gluconeogenesis

(What is it? What hormone stimulate this process to occur under what conditions?)

Anabolic reaction of creating glucose from proteins and fats

Stimulated by corisol and glucagon to occur when the liver's storage of glycogen in low, if you are fasting/starving, or there are not enough carbs and blood glucose is low. 

Glycogenesis

(What is it? What hormones stimulate it to happen under what conditions?)

Anabolic reaction with glucose in liver and skeletal muscles to store glucose as glycogen.

Stimulated by insulin when blood glucose is too high.

Glucose Catabolism

(What are the 4 steps? How many ATP are created in total?)

Glycolysis

Formation of Acetyl-CoA

Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport Chain

36-38 ATP are created

- ATP Production

- Glycogen Syntehsis (glycogenesis)

- Amino Acid Synthesis

- Triglyceride Synthesis (lipogenesis)

Oxidation

(Think of OIL)

Removal of electrons (biologically the loss of H+). Decreases potential energy.

Reduction

(Think of RIG)

A synthesis/building reaction.

Synthesizing molecules necessary for life.

Breakdown reactions

Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones.

How many Essential and Nonessential Amino Acid are there?

What is the difference between Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids?

9 essential amino acids

11 nonessential amino acids

Body can synthesis nonessential amino acids. Body cannot synthesis nonessential amino acids.

A Tryglyceride contains 1 glycerol plus 3 amino acids.

Saturated - single convalent bond between carbon atoms of fatty acids

Unsaturated - double covalent bond between carbon atoms of fatty acids.

Percentage of Daily Intake that should be Lipids

And percentage of that that should be triglycerides and percentage that should be cholesterol and phosphlipids.

30% of daily intake

- 95% triglycerides

- 5% cholesterol and phospholipids

Long carb molecules

Built from many monosaccharides

ex - starch, glycogen and cellulose

2 monosaccharides put together

ex - sucrose (table sugar)

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Digestive Hormone secreted by duodenum in response to arrival of chyme in stomach

Increases blood flow for maximum nutrient absorption, relaxes stomach and increases motility.

Enterocrinin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Digestive Hormone secreted by duodenum in response to arrival of chyme from stomach

Promotes production of alkaline mucous by submucosal glands of the small intestines to protect small intestine walls from acidic chyme entering from stomach.

Pepsinogen/Pepsin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Secreted by chief cells as pepsinogen (inactive form).

Acid in lumen of stomach activates it

Is a digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Digestive hormone secreted by small intestines that stimulates the digestion of fat and proteins by stimulating pancreas to secrete it's digestive enzymes and gallbladder to release bile into the duodenum.

Also inhibits gastric secretion of enzymes and acid.

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Digestive hormone secreted by K cells in the duodenum. 

Inhibits gastric secretion of enzymes and acid and reduces rate and force of gastric contraction making chyme stay in stomach longer and enter duodenum at a slower pace. 

Secretin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Secreted in crypts in small intestines. 

Regulates pH of entering chyme by stimulating pancreas to secrete pancratic juice that is rich in bicarbonate ions to buffer acid and raise pH of chyme.

Maltase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Sucrase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Lactase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Alpha Dextrinase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Ribonuclease

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Pancreatic Lipase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Deoxyribonuclease

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Elastase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Secreted by pancreas inactive form

Activated by trypsin

Digests proteins

Carboxypeptidase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Secreted by pancreas in inactive form

Activated by trypsin.

Digests proteins

Chymotrypsin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Secreted by pancreas in inactive form

Activated by trypsin

Digests proteins

Trypsin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Secreted by pancreas in inactive form.

Once activated by enterokinase it activates other pancreatic protein digesting enzymes

Also digests proteins

Enterokinase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Pancreatic Amylase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Somatostatin

(What is it? What does it do?)

Intrinsic Factor

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Gastric Lipase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Lingual Lipase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Secreted by glands in the tongue

Starts digesting tryglycerides.

Gastrin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Water Absorption

(How? Where?)

Salivary amylase starts the digestion, but is inactivated by acid in stomach. 

Pancreatic amylase takes over in small intestines.

The brush border enzymes: alpha destrinase, sucrase, lactase and maltase also digest specific sugars in small intestines

Pepsin cleaves proteins into peptides in stomach.

Pancreatic enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase continue to break down proteins into peptides in small intestines (each enzyme cleaves a different amino acid bond)

Brush border peptidases complete breakdown into single amino acids

Simplest sugars

ex - glucose, fructose

Hepatocytes

What are they? What do they do?

Liver cells

Adjust circulating levels of nutrients through selective absorption and secretion

Portal Areas/Hepatic Triad

(Located? Contains? Function?)

Located on each corner of a hexagonal liver lobule.

Contains a branch of the heptaic portal vein, a branch of hepatic artery and a small branch of bile duct.

Delivers blood to sinusoids of adjacent liver lobules so hepatocytes and kupffer cells can absorb things from blood and secrete materials that the blood needs. The blood then drains into central vein in center of lobule.

Kupffer Cells

(Where? Function?)

In liver lobules in sinusoidal lining.

Engulf pathogens, cell debris and damaged blood cells. Store iron, lipids and heavy metals absorbed by digestive tract.

Salivary Amylase

Ligual Lipase

Swallowing (voluntary, pharyngeal and esophogeal phases) 

Esophageal Peristalsis 

Mixing waves churning food and push into duodenum

HCl

Gastric Lipase (lipid digesting enzyme)

Pepsin (protein digesting enzyme)

Gastrin (hormone)

Brush border enzymes

Secretin (hormone)

GIP (hormone)

VIP (hormone)

CCK (hormone)

Mucous from Brunners gland

Trypsin

Chymotrypsin

Pancreatic Lipase

Carboxypeptidase

Elastase

Ribonuclease

Deoxyribonucleases

Bicarbonate 

Controls and monitors blood glucose, and fatty acid and amino acid levels

Filters, modifies, and stores/excretes toxins

Filters Blood

Creates Bile

Haustral Churning

Defecation