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| The field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan. |
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| Development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep. |
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| development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior. |
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| development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span. |
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| the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life. |
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| A group of people born at around the same time in the same place. |
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| history-graded influences |
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| biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment |
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| Variation in health status arising from different causal factors to which each birth cohort in a population is exposed as environment and society change. |
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| biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they were raised. |
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| sociocultural graded influences |
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| the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables such as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership. |
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| non-normative life events |
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| specific, atypical events that occur in a particular person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people |
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| the everyday, immediate environment in which children live their daily lives. Home, caregivers, friends, and teachers are ifluences, and so are children |
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| provides connections between the various aspects of the microsystem. binds children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, friends to friends. diret and indirect influences that bind us to one another |
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| represents broader influences, encompassing societal institutions such as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media. |
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| represents larger cultural influences on an idividual. society in general, government, religious, and political value systems |
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| underlies each of the other systems, it involves the way the passage of time, including historical events and more gradual historical changes affect children's development |
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| the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals |
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| Discontinuous vs. continuous change |
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Continuous change: change is gradual; achievements at one level build on the previous level; underlying developmental processes remain the same over the lifespan.
Discontinuous: change occurs in distinct steps or stages; behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages. |
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| critical/sensitive periods |
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Critical: certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal development; emphasized by early developmentalists
sensitive: people are susceptible to certain environmental stimuli, but consequences of absent stimuli are reversible; current emphasis in lifespan development |
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nature: emphasis is on discovering inherited genetic traits and abilities
nurture: emphasis is on environmental influences that affect a person's development |
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| psychodynamic perspective (Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson) |
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| the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control |
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| Sigmund Freud (and Psychosexual Development |
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-suggested that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior called the psychoanalytic theory
-he believed everyone's personality has three aspects: the id, the ego, and the superego
-suggested the ways personality is developed during childhood called psychosexual development
--birth to 12 - 18 months-oral--interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting
--12 - 18 months to 3 years-anal--gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society's controls relating to toilet training
--3 to 5-6 years-phalic--interest in genitals, coming to term with oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same sex parent
--5-6 years to adolescence-latency--sexual concerns largely unimportant
--adolescence to adulthood-genital--reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships |
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| the raw, unorganized, inborn part of the personality that is present at birth. It represents the primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. operates according to the pleasure principle |
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| pleasure principle vs. reality principle |
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pleasure principle (id)-the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension
reality principle (ego)-instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society |
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| the part of the personality that is rational and reasonable, operates on the reality principle |
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-a person's conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong
-learned from an individual's parents, teachers, and other significant figures |
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| According to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part |
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| Erik Erickson (and Psychosocial Development) |
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-society and culture both challenge and shape us
-stages of psychosocial development:
--trust vs. mistrust-feelings of trust from environmental support vs. fear and concern regarding others
--autonomy vs. shame and doubt-self-suffiency if exploration is encouraged vs. doubt about slef, lack of independence
--initiative vs. guilt-discovery of ways to initiate actions vs. guilt from actions and thoughts
--industry vs. inferiority-development of sense of competence vs. feeling of inferiority, no sense of mastery
--identity vs. role diffusion-awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed vs. inability to identify appropriate roles in life
--intimacy vs. isolation-development of loving, sexual relationships and close friendships vs. fear of relationships with others
--generativity vs. stagnation-sense of contribution to continuity of life vs. trivialization of one's activities
--ego-integrity vs. despair--sense of unity in one's accomplishments vs. regret over lost opportunities in life |
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classical vs. operant conditioning
(John Watson |
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classical conditioning-a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
operant conditioning-a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences |
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| social-cognitive learning theory (Albert Bandura) |
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| learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model |
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assimilation vs. accommodation
(Jean Piaget) |
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assimilation-process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking
accommodation-changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.
Assimilation and accommodation work in tandem to bring about cognitive development. |
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| organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions |
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| information processing approaches (Jean Piaget) |
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| models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information |
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| behavioral perspective (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura) |
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| development can be understood through studying observable behavior and environmental stimuli |
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| humanistic perspective (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) |
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| behavior is chosen through free will and motivated by our natural capacity to strive to reach our full potential |
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| evolutionary perspective (Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz) |
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| behavior is the result of genetic inheritance from our ancestors; traits and behavior that are adaptive for promoting the survival of our species have been inherited through natural selection |
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-proposed the bioecological approach
-can't fully understand development without considering how a person is influenced by each of these levels: microsystem, macrosystem, mesosystem, chronosystem, and exosystem |
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| examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior |
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| ethology; his work demonstrated the importance of biological determinants in influencing behavior patterns, ulimately led developmentalists to consider the ways in which human behavior might reflectinborn genetic patterns |
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| the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives |
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| humanistic perspective; suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. Because it is other people who provide this positive regard, we become dependent upon them. Consequently, our view of ourselves and our self worth is a reflection of how we think others view us. |
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| humanistic perspective; suggests that self-actualization is a primary goal in life. |
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| a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way |
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| a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested |
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| research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists |
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| research designed to discover relationships between various factors |
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| the observation of a naturally occuring behavior without intervention in the situation |
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| involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals. |
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| a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions abouth their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic. |
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| reserch in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age |
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| research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time |
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| research in which researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time |
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| the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment |
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| the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation |
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