Aggressive-rejected

Withdraw-rejected

-Poor social and academic skills

- Longitudinal designs suggest if you are aggressive at one time, you become more and more rejected

- Put into new situations and kids are already disliked

- Interactions among preschool-age friends and nonfriends persist and become more sharply defined.

- Friends and communicate more and better with each other and cooperate and work together more effectively

-Level of importance and intimacy increases

- Children who were rejected had less social skills, academic skills and poor behavioral outcomes later on in life. Such as conduct problems and aggression, substance abuse.

- Children with positive outcomes were able to better function with peers in school, buffer from stress, have social and cognitive skills, were better at long-term adjustment

- Sex segregation common

- Girls find play style of boys aversive

- Cliques, friendships tend to be same sex

- Potential problems when boys and girls interact in adolescence.

- Secure attachment to parent affects the child's future social competence and the quality of the child's relationships with other, including peers.

- Similar to this is the ongoing parent-child interactions

- Parents of socially competent children are more likely to believe that should play an active role in teaching their children social skills and providing opportunities for peer interaction.

- Also believe when their children display innappropriate behavior with a peer, it is because of circumstances of the specific situation

- Gatekeeping, coaching and modeling

Sympathy: when encountering another in distress

-Younger Children: self-oriented distress

- Older Children: sympathetic arousal, perhaps because emotional regulation

Role-taking:

- Increased ability to recognize when others need help, increased concern about others needs

Prosocial reasoning:

- Shift from hedonistic reasoning to importance of empathy and internalized values

Prosocial self-concept:

- As children get older, they describe themselves in more stable, trait-like ways

-Preconventional: What is right is the obediance to authorities. Conscience due to fear of punishment, moral action due to this fear. Does not consider interests of others.

-Conventional: Good behavior is doing what is expected by people who are close to the person or what people generally expect of someone in a given role.

- Postconventional: Right behaviors involves upholding rules that are in the best interest of the group, are impartial, or were agreed upon by the group.

-Cultural differences, in which theory reflects a biased, intellectual Western conception of morality

-Kohlberg's idea of discontinuous theory. Children and adults alike often reason at different levels on different occasions

- Possible sex differences in moral judgement

Child Factors:

- Gender (females are greater. males value justice and rights, females value care)

-Emotional Factors (empathy, sympathetic arousal leads to prosocial behavior. self-oriented distressinhibits altruism)

- Cognitive Factors (role-taking, prosocial and moral reasoning, prosocial and moral self-concept, not true in little kids)

External Factors:

- Parental Socialization (secure attachment, authoritative parent, discipline with induction)

- Peer Socialization (socialization of prosocial behaviors, collaborators, rather than superior authorities who can constrain and challenge the child's judgement)

- Cultural/ Societal Values (non-industrialized countries much higher in altruism)

Reason that stimulates children to consider:

- the negative effects of wrongdoing for others and self

- how to change behavior for the better in the future (e.g., direct comforting versus response to victim)

Conscience of a young child reflects primarily internalized parental standards.

-Toddlers prone to fear tend to exhibit more guilt . Development of conscience is promoted by mother's use of gentle discipline including reasoning, constructive suggestions and providing nonmaterial incentives for compliance.

-In fearless children, a positive parent-child relationship in which there is cooperation and secure attachment is necessary.

Physical Aggression: harm physical well-being

Relational Aggression: harm relaitonships, can be direct or indirect

- At 18 months, physical aggression such as hitting and pushing begins and increases in frequency until about age 2 or 3. Then, with the growth of language skills, physical aggression decreases in frequency, and verbal aggression such as insults and taunting increases.

- Aggression in wyoung children in usually instrumental. Elemntary school children is often hostile.

-In adolescence, frequency of overt aggression decreases

- Girls are socialized away from aggression, does not typically appear until adolescence.

-Children harm peers in ways that are more salient for their gender.

- Boys: instrumentally, physical dominance, competition

-Girls: cooperation, interpersonal sensitivity, valuing relatinships

- At 2.5 years, differences can be seen.

What Do the Friendships of Physically Aggressive Children Look Like?  Those of Relational Aggression?

Physically Aggressive: 

Is There a Hostile Attribution Bias Evident Among Relationally Aggressive Children?  If So, Does it Differ In Any Ways from the Biases We See in Physically Aggressive Children? 

What Temperament Factors are Associated with Aggression?  Biological Factors?

- Children who develop problems with aggression and antisocial behavior tend to exhibit a difficult temperament from a very early age.

- Antisocial tendencies are shown to be genetic.

- Hormonal factors also play a role.

What Socialization Factors Predict Aggression?  For Example, is Physical Punishment Associated with Aggression? 

- Many children whose parents often use harsh but nonabusive physical punishment are rone to problem behaviors in the early years, aggression in childhood, and criminality in adolescence and adulthood.

- Varies cross-culturally

- Abusive punishment is likely to be associated with the development of antisocial tendencies regardless of the group

- Aggressive children tend to socialize with other aggressive children

- Boys who initially are moderately aggressive become more delinquent over time if they have close friends who are aggressive.

- The larger peer group with whom older children and adolescents socialize may influence aggression even more than their close friends do.

What Is the Fast Track Intervention?  Does It Work?

- A large federally funded study that was being tested in high-risk schools.

-Designed to promote understanding and communication of emotions, positive social behavior, self-control and social probelm solving.

-Program has been quite successful

What Gender Differences Do We See in Cognitive Abilities, Social Behavior, and Developmental Disorders/Mental Illness? 

Gender Identity, Stability, and Constancy – What Are They, and When Do They Emerge?

How Do Gender Role Stereotypes Change Across Development?

What Is the Cognitive Explanations of Gender Development?  How Do the Theories Differ?

Kohlberg: 

- congenital adrenal hyperplasia

nHigh amounts of androgens, beginning prenatally

Are there sex differences in gender flexibility?  What explanations have been provided for them?

- Boys are more rigidly sex-typed than girls are.

-Boys engage almost exclusively in activites that are considered to be either masculine or gender-neutral, whereas girls fairly often engage in activities considered to be appropriate for boys.

- Asymmetry in the extent to which most people find it acceptable for boys and girls to engage in activities deemed more appropriate for the other sex.

What portrayals of violence are most likely to lead to aggression?

Who is most at risk for engaging in violence after exposure to violent media?

What is the media’s role in our beliefs about appearance/attractiveness?

What historical trends do we see in the media’s portrayal of thinness?

Is there evidence that media consumption is associated with body satisfaction or eating disorders? 

Do educational programs such as Sesame Street lead to any positive effects?  If so, what are these effects?  How long do they persist?

nSesame Street

- Nature and Nurture

- Children play active roles in their own development

- Development is both continuous and discontinuous

- Mechanisms of Developmental Change

The Sociocultural Context Shapes Development

Nature/Nurture

• - Interactions before birth: can be seen in teratogens. Can also be seen in fetal learning
• -Nature eliciting nurture: babies are cute, eliciting responses from adults. Looking and smiling motivates people, along with cooing and crying
• Importance of timing: Timing of exposure to teratogens, perceptual capabilities, auditory development, grammatical development, social, emotional and intellectual development
• Interactions: between genetically influenced properties, such as self-esteem

Active role

• Self-initiated activity: infants ability to act with its environment. Choices of peers and activities.  
• Interpretations: trying to understand the world around them. Motivates children to construct informal theories concerning inanimate objects, living things and people.
• Self-regulation: regulating behavior, regulate their activities in an increasing range of situations 
• Eliciting reactions from others: infants' behaviors influences other people's behavior toward them, which in turn further influences the infant's behavior

Continuity/discontinuity

• In individual differences: stability of individual differences over time. I.e., intelligence, personality and social. Degree of continuity is generally lower in social, emotional and personality than intellectual
• Question of stages: Theories such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Freud's theory of psychosexual development, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and Kohlberg's theory of moral development
• Share: developmental progresses through a series of qualitatively distinct stages, when children are in a given stage, a fairly broad range of their behavior exhibits the features characteristic of that stage, the stages occur in the same order for all children, transitions between stages occurs quickly.

Mechanisms of change

• Biological: DNA and the brain
• Behavioral: habituation, conditioning and statistical learning, social learning in imitation, influences socioemotional development, acquisition of knowledge, social scaffolding
• Cognitive: General Information-Processing Mechanisms including:

- Basic processes: associating events with each other, recognizing objects as familiar, recalling facts and procedures, encoding key features of events and generalizing from one instance to another.

- Strategies: achieving goals

-Metacognition: increasing memory strategies, adaptive choice among alternative strategies

- Content knowledge: the more children know about a topic, the better they are to lean and remember new information about it.

Sociocultural context

• Cultural: different values and practices, different emotional reactions, continue beyond infancy
• Historical: In modern societies, many aspects of children's lives are greatly improved
• Economic: poor children's academic achievement is far lower than that of children from wealthier families. All aspects of development influenced.
• Social context: family and peer groups vary considerably

Individual differences

•  Stability over time: moderate individual differences over time. Stability in both genes and environment.
• Prediction of future individual differences: the relative stability of most children's environment contributes to these long-term continuities of psychological functioning
• Potential contributors to individual differences: genetics, experience

Improving Lives

• Implications for parenting: pick a good partner, ensure a healthy pregnancy, know which decisions are likely to have a long-term impact, form a secure attachment, prepare older siblings for baby's arrival, provide a stimulating environment
• Education: Piaget's theory emphasizes importance of the child's active involvment, both mental and physical in the learning process. Information Processing Theory suggests methods for identifying the sources of child's misunderstandings. Core Knowledge Theory approaches emphasizing children's informal theories. Sociocultural theories emphasize the need to turn classrooms into communities.
• Helping at-risk children: the importance of timing, biology and environment work together, every problem has many consequences
• Improving social policy: maternity leave, day care, eyewitness testimony