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| A “blank slate” waiting to be written by their experiences. |
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| This term focuses on whether people are active in their own development or passively shaped by forces outside themselves. |
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| This stage is a distinct phase of the life cycle characterized by a particular set of abilities, motives, emotions, or behaviors that form a coherent pattern. |
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| Universality-Context-Specificity Issue |
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| The extent to which developmental changes are common to all humans (universal) or different from person to person (context specific). |
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| It is the prevailing notions of human nature and human development by proposing that people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts of which are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in life. |
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| An inborn biological force that motivates behavior. |
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| The power of instincts and other inner forces to influence behavior without awareness. |
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| The impulsive, irrational part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. |
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| The rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic ways of gratifying the instincts. |
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| The individual’s internalized moral standards. |
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| The psychic energy of the sex instincts. |
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| The five stages of child development that includes; oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. |
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| A person’s defense system against anxiety that is adopted by the ego as an unconscious coping device. |
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| An arrested development in which part of the libido remains tied to an early stage. |
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| This involves retreating to an earlier, less traumatic stage of development. |
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Definition
| Eight major stages, or conflicts, that are human experience during their lives. |
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| The belief that conclusions about human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional processes. |
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| A simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response. |
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| Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) |
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Definition
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| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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| An unlearned, or automatic, reaction to the unconditioned stimulus. |
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
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| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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| A learned reaction to the stimulus. |
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| A learner’s behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces. |
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| Positive here means that something has been added to the situation, and reinforcement means that the behavior is strengthened . |
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Term
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| (not a term for punishment) occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation, or is escaped or avoided, after the behavior occurs. |
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| This form of punishment occurs when an unpleasant event is added to the situation following a behavior (A child being spanked after misbehaving). |
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| This form of punishment occurs when something pleasant is removed from the situation following the behavior (a child loses the privilege of staying up on Saturday night). |
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| Behavior that is ignored, or no longer reinforced, tends to become less frequent until the behavior is stopped. |
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| The claim that humans are cognitive beings whose active processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development (once called social learning theory). |
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| It is simply learning by observing the behavior of other people (called models). |
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| This type of reinforcement learners become more or less likely to perform a behavior based on the consequences experienced by the model they observe. |
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| The ways in which people deliberately exercise cognitive control over themselves, their environments, and their lives. |
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| The belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes in a particular area of life. |
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| The belief that humans active, cognitive beings, human development occurs through a continuous reciprocal interaction among the person (the individual’s biological and psychological characteristics and cognitions). |
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| Piaget’s belief that children active construct new surroundings of the world based on their experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| This stage deals with the world directly through the infant’s perceptions (senses) and actions (motor abilities). Age birth to two years. |
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| This stage deals with cognitive development that has developed the capacity for symbolic thought but is not yet capable of logical problem solving. Ages 2 to 7 years. |
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| Concrete Operations Stage |
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Definition
| hese school-age children are more logical than preschoolers. They use a trial-and-error approach to problem solving and do well on problems that involve thinking about concrete objects. Age 7 to 11 years. |
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Definition
| Adolescents who reach this stage are able to think more abstractly and hypothetically than school-age children. Age 11 to 12 and older. |
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| Sociocultural Perspective |
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Definition
| A theory by Lev Vygotsky that maintains that cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs and grows out of children’s interactions with members of their culture. |
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| Information-Processing Approach |
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Definition
| This approach became the dominant perspective in the 1980’s, likens the human mind to a computer with hardware and software and emphasizes fundamental mental processes such as attention, memory, decision making, and the like. |
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| This theory claims that changes over the life span arise from the ongoing transactions between a changing organism and a changing world. |
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| The study of the evolved behavior of various species in their natural environments. |
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| Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective |
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Definition
| This perspective is the belief that development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that of a larger system. |
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Term
| This perspective is the belief that development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that of a larger system. |
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Definition
| The process through which nature and nurture, genes and environment, jointly bring forth particular developmental outcomes—sometimes surprising outcomes that are not easily predicted. |
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Term
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Definition
| The reliance or uses of many theories and the recognition of no particular developmental theory for the explanation of human development. |
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