Term
|
Definition
Definition: the mode in which learners best acquire information, knowledge, language, etc
Example: some students learn best through seeing things (visual learners)
Further Point: We can think of styles in terms of VAKOG (Visual, Auditory, Kinaesthetic, Olfactory and Gustatory). Students normally have a blend of these styles
Example: some people are good with numbers and patterns - they have logical/mathematical intelligence
Further Point: 7 intelligences have been identified, though many now include an 8th (naturalist). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: an overview of a learner's strengths and weaknesses in terms of what learner styles and intelligences they have
Example: Student A is a good visual and auditory learner, but doesn't get much out of kinaesthetic activities
Further Point: learner profiles can be used to base the needs of your students on when designing courses and activities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: definitions of learner styles/types divided into different 'intelligences' conforming to a different sphere of activity
Example: some people are good with numbers and patterns - they have logical/mathematical intelligence
Further Point: 7 intelligences have been identified, though many now include an 8th (naturalist). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a learner is happy to wait for a language rule and cope with only part of the story
Example: a student accepts the reason, "that's just the way it is," is tolerant of ambiguity
Further Point: students can be intolerant of ambiguity as well and feel they need to know rules they can apply in any situation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: describes a learner that needs the 'packaging' and presentation of data which the teacher, syllabus or course provides
Example: a student who doesn't feel s/he can learn outside of formal education is syllabus-bound
Further Point: the opposite kind of learner is described as a syllabus-free learner |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a learner who can learn from general elements in a learning context and outside of a classroom
Example: a learner who likes individual exercises and feels they work best on their own could be described as syllabus-free
Further Point: it is considered syllabus-free learners learn best when left to their own devices and can be restricted by course requirements |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: describes a learner who learns language through global exposure to language
Example: a student who doesn't feel the need to sequentially work through things and doesn't feel the need to make constant connections between things
Further Point: these types of learner benefit from doing a wide range of activities in a wide range of topics - breadth of experience is important |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: describes a learner that needs to analyse elements sequentially
Example: a student who wants to do tenses in a strict order would be a serialist
Further Point: serial learners can be thought of in opposition to holistic learners who learn through global exposure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: describes a learner who only sees systems in terms of the general structure
Example: a learner who would not notice grammatical or lexical patterns in dialogue
Further Point: we can also talk about field-independent learners, who see things in terms of larger structures |
|
|
Term
| Field-independent learner |
|
Definition
Definition: describes a learner who notices systems in larger structures
Example: a learner who notices verb patterns within dialogue
Further Point: we can also talk about field-dependent learners, who only see things in terms of general structures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a desire to learn based on some kind of internal requirement or satisfaction
Example: a learner who comes to English classes because s/he loves learning languages
Further Point: can be balanced against 'extrinsic' motivation, where the impetus comes from outside |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: requirements for learning which come from 'outside'
Example: a need to learn to get a job, pass an exam or because parents have made you
Further Point: can be balanced against 'intrinsic' motivation, where the impetus comes from inside |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the need to learn is based on the student's requirement to 'fit in' inside an L2 environment
Example: needing to know a language because you've moved to another country
Further Point: this kind of motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: desire to learn caused by the need to achieve something
Example: needing to pass an exam or to get a career promotion
Further Point: this kind of motivation could be either intrinsic or extrinsic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to be better than the people around them have performance orientation
Example: a student who systematically goes around after a test to see if they have the highest marks is performance-oriented
Further Point: can be balanced against mastery orientation, where students are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of how others are performing have mastery orientation
Example: a student who sets him/herself goals to achieve and doesn't care if people do better in an exam is mastery-oriented
Further Point: can be balanced against performance orientation, where students are motivated by the desire to be better than those around them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test to find out if the aims of a course/part of a course have been achieved, and the content absorbed
Example: A grammar test at the end of the month, testing what has been covered in class
Further Point: also called an achievement test or can be classed as formative testing (during a course) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test to discover a learner's general abilities in skills and systems, not related to a particular course or text or programme of study
Example: Cambridge Main Suite exams like PET, FCE or CAE
Further Point: Proficiency tests can be 'norm-referenced' (graded in comparison to other test takers), or 'criterion-referenced' (graded to explicit criteria) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the everyday testing we do in class - not under test conditions i.e. not timed or graded etc
Example: eliciting, test-teach-test, monitoring etcetera
Further Point: this is the most common type of testing carried out on a language course |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test done to place a student in the correct level/class at the start of a course
Example: a multiple-choice grammar test followed by a spoken interview to ascertain ability
Further Point: placement tests can have a 'forward wash' effect, rather than backwash, as they are before the course. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test undertaken to test strengths and weaknesses in skills and systems
Example: a list of incorrect sentences for student to put into correct grammar, thereby testing grammatical areas they are good and bad at
Further Point: the results of these tests are often used as needs analyses, thus dictating future course content |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test of a student's natural ability to learn a language (in this case)
Example: in pronunciation, a test to check the ability to imitate/distinguish sounds in an unknown language
Further Point: clearly it is much simpler to test aptitude in systems like grammar, pronunciation or lexis, rather than skills |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the consistency of the results gained from the test
Example: 2 students of identical level should get the same result, or the same student sitting the test on different occasions
Further Point: we can also talk about 'marker reliability' in that the marker should also mark the same across different tests |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: how easy the exam/test is to administer and mark
Example: a test that has a cover grid for the marker to quickly see what is right and wrong has high practicality.
Further Point: increasing a test's practicality often has an inverse effect on its reliability or validity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: if a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test (impression)
Example: a learner may consider a pronunciation test which requires no speaking to not have face validity
Further Point: we can talk about a test having high face validity or low face validity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: to what degree a test tests what it is supposed to (thoroughness)
Example: a test of present simple with more examples, including +, -, ?, short answer, has higher content validity than one with few + examples only
Further Point: content validity also refers to how thoroughly a test reflects the course of study before it e.g. a grammar test following an integrated systems-skills course has low content validity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: how much a test tests what it is supposed to and nothing else (precision)
Example: a gap-fill where the gaps have other possible answers, apart from the desired answers, is less construct valid than one where there is only one answer per gap
Further Point: we can talk about a test having high construct validity or low construct validity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: how much a test accurately predicts how the student will use the language in real life
Example: writing a dialogue of buying something in a shop tests what language a student would use in that real-life situation
Further Point: we can talk about a test having high predictive validity or low predictive validity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the impact of the test on society, educational systems and individuals.
Example: the experience of preparing for a test will affect the individual and how they view language and language courses
Further Point: Two further aspects of the testing system can impact on individuals - feedback on their performance and decisions made based on results |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: an example of a student's work to see what their rough ability is. Not taken under test conditions
Example: at the start of the course, getting students to write a letter to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses
Further Point: you can take samples of productive skills (writing, speaking) but not receptive skills |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test of one particular area of grammar, lexis or discourse
Example: a test on phrasal verbs or tenses
Further Point: typical as part of a product oriented syllabus / common in course books with a multi-layered syllabus with a central core syllabus of discrete items |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test of various aspects of systems or skills at the same time
Example: a cloze test tests lexis and grammar and discourse at the same time
Further Point: used as a measure of general linguistic ability rather than knowledge of a single item |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test that where there can only be right or wrong answers i.e. no subjective judgement on part of the marker
Example: a multiple-choice test, where only one of the option is correct
Further Point: the fact that answers can only be right or wrong means that the test will have higher reliability |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test that allows a variety of answers to be given and relies on a marker to 'judge' subjectively the correctness of the answer
Example: writing a letter for a marker to grade
Further Point: the fact that two markers may vary widely in their judgement means that these tests will have lower reliability |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test of the language point or skill by focusing just on that language point/skill
Example: testing use of linkers with a gap fill
Further Point: High face validity for the student |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test of something within the context of something else
Example: testing a student's use of linkers by getting them to write a discursive essay.
Further Point: Can be oral or written, often in the form of an informal test, e.g. students talk about their holiday experiences as a way to test their use of the present perfect / past simple tenses in the lead in stage of a lesson |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test graded in comparison to the whole group of exam takers
Example: A test in which there had to be a certain number of passes, grade Bs, grade As, etc
Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test |
|
|
Term
| Criterion-referenced test |
|
Definition
Definition: a test graded according to explicit criteria
Example: a test marked using banded descriptors or can-do statements, such as FCE speaking
Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test type where two sentences are given - one complete and one incomplete. Students must use a given key word to complete the second sentence so that the meaning of both sentences is the same
Example: FCE Use of English Part 4
Further Point: key word transformations are used to gauge a student's grammar and lexis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test type where students are given a word that they have to change the form of to complete a sentence or longer text
Example: FCE Use of English Part 3
Further Point: word formation tests the students lexical knowledge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test type where students have to provide a short answer to a given question
Example: In what year was JFK assassinated? ____________________________________
Further Point: questions of this type have to be very focussed to ensure they are reliable and objective |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test type where students have to match two or more sets of linked words, pictures or sentences
Example: FCE Reading Part 3
Further Point: this test type often relies on the student's knowledge of lexical fields and synonyms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: evaluation during a course / study programme
Example: a weekly test of the grammar and lexis learnt in that week
Further Point: can be compared to summative evaluation, which is done after a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: evaluation after a course / study programme
Example: an end of course test
Further Point: can be compared to formative evaluation, which is done during a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching leading up to it
Example: a global language exam decides to include a speaking test for the time. This causes teachers to begin including speaking practice in their classes
Further Point: the effect of backwash can be positive or negative |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching that follows the test/exam
Example: a teacher notices that students are doing consistently poorly in the listening part of a language test, causing the teacher to focus more on listening
Further Point: forward wash can be positive or negative |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test where a number of answers are given. Students have to choose the correct answer
Example: FCE Reading Part 1, where students have a choice of ABCD answers
Further Point: this type of test has high reliability as it is objective (does not involve the marker's subjective opinion) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a test where a number of words have been removed from a text. Students have to complete the text
Example: FCE Use of English Part 2, where students have fill the gaps left in the text
Further Point: traditionally, the missing words were every so many words (e.g. every 9th word was missing) - there are also open and multiple choice cloze tests |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a belief that language is learned behaviour and we learn by imitation of good models
Example: the Audio-lingual Method is the classroom approach of behaviourist ideology
Further Point: this approach works on a stimulus-response-reward/punishment model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a belief that we are born 'hard-wired' for language learning i.e. with an innate capacity
Example: Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory holds that all people from all cultures have the same innate 'rules' inside them
Further Point: many believe that this knowledge has to be triggered within a 'critical period' and is therefore sometimes not relevant to learning L2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: approaches which are based on the students being given rules to apply logically
Example: the Grammar-Translation Approach is an example of a deductive approach
Further Point: deductive approaches can save time and some students may regard them as more adult |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: approaches which are based on the students initially being given examples from which they work out the rules for themselves
Example: the Audio-lingual Method is an example of an inductive approach - students work out form patterns from oral repetition
Further Point: the idea is that working things out for oneself is more memorable/has more cognitive depth |
|
|
Term
| Grammar-Translation Approach |
|
Definition
Definition: A deductive approach based on the translation of literary texts from and into L2 with a focus on lexis lists and grammar rules
Example: Spanish students are given a section of Don Quixote in Spanish and piece by piece translate it into English
Further Point: Seen as a way of 'sharpening the mind' rather than language learning. The only speaking was reading translated texts aloud. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: A method from the 1880s based on speaking and listening instead of reading/writing, with lots of teacher talk and quick-fire 'display' questions.
Example: The teacher asking a string of questions about what the names of things are and what we use them for
Further Point: a lot of the language content is not very 'natural'. Berlitz is the most famous proponent of this approach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: an inductive approach based on drilling and pattern practice, moving towards substitution of elements
Example: Teacher: "That cat is cute." Students: "That cat is cute." Teacher: "Dog." Students: "That dog is cute." etc
Further Point: most interaction is teacher-student, students should 'overlearn' so that usage becomes habitual. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: an inductive approach formed by Krashen that students should have as much comprehensible input (i+1) as possible
Example: classes where students listen to a large amount of language and read a lot, roughly at their level, would be using the natural approach
Further Point: there is no focus on form in the natural approach. |
|
|
Term
| Task-Based Learning (TBL) |
|
Definition
Definition: an approach based on the belief that students learn by using, with a focus on being fluent first and accurate later
Example: students try a communicative task, the teacher provides help and upgrades language, the students have a better go at the task
Further Point: comes out of the belief that 'teaching is not the same as learning' - led to a move away from the PPP model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: (Michael Lewis) marked by the belief that lexis is the most important element - language is
' grammaticised lexis' not 'lexicalised grammar'
Example: syllabi that focus on lexical chunks and collocation with little or no grammar input are lexical in their approach
Further Point: at low levels there is a strong emphasis on reading and listening |
|
|
Term
| Total Physical Response (TPR) |
|
Definition
Definition: (James Asher) an approach based on students responding at first physically and then verbally to teacher commands
Example: Teacher: "If you like chocolate, stand up." (all students stand up) "If you also like crisps, sit down." (some students sit down) etc
Further Point: there is lots of listening at lower levels leading to more reading at higher levels |
|
|
Term
| Community Language Learning |
|
Definition
Definition: (Charles Curran) an approach designed to form a group identity and lower the affective filter by building a conversation for later analysis/practice.
Example: Ss sitting in a closed circle whisper to T (outside the circle) what they wish to say to another S in L1. T translates, drills and S records utterance.
Further Point: a student-led process syllabus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the teacher elicits and speaks as a last resort, uses gestures, charts and Cuisenaire rods to work on structures.
Example: Teacher taps Fidel chart of phonemes in 3 places repetitively. Students provide word: r-e-d. Red.
Further Point: interesting that the silent way works on a structural syllabus, but is inductive in approach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: (Giori Lozanov) an approach based on lowering the students' affective filter as much as possible to encourage acquisition
Example: using baroque music, sitting in comfy chairs, creating new identities all form part of this approach
Further Point: there is a 'receptive' 'activation' phase in class |
|
|
Term
| Learner (Strategy) Training |
|
Definition
Definition: an approach based on the belief that students need training in 'learning' to make them more effective learners
Example: by teaching a student to underline the key words in rubric, they will become more effective at ensuring the question is answered correctly
Further Point: Learner training also emphasises the importance of learner autonomy and self-assessment as a means of improvement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the idea that exercises which lead students to pay attention to form will lead to noticing these forms in future input, leading to acquisition
Example: teacher highlights 'let's face it' in a text in class and later a student consciously notices the phrase in their reading/listening and they acquire it
Further Point: Studies in L2 acquisition suggest that we need to consciously notice language for input to become intake |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: Presentation - Practice - Production model for the teaching of discrete items of grammar and lexis
Example: Introducing key examples of target language in context, followed by restricted use to build accuracy/confidence, then target language is used in a freer context to practise accuracy/fluency
Further Point: An accuracy to fluency model which is much criticised nowadays |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a method where you find out student ability initially, work on problem areas as necessary and then check student improvement
Example: Teacher tests knowledge of articles with a gap fill, then teaches rules, then students correct the gap fill by applying the rules
Further Point: this can be for discrete items or for skills e.g. to test for the presence/absence of a particular sub-skill |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: students work things out by themselves so that they are more cognitively engaged and the rules are more memorable
Example: giving students examples and guiding them to work out the rules is an example of inductive guided discovery
Further Point: can be deductive (give students rules to match to examples) as well as inductive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a type of reconstruction activity based on natural-speed dictation of a text
Example: the teacher dictates a short text at natural speed and students just listen; on a second dictation they note key words and phrases, then work together to reconstruct the text
Further Point: Usually holistic in language focus, but can be discrete item |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about
Example: in a manual about how to use the internet, a context might be 'running a search on the web'
Further Point: can be confused with 'co-text', which is text around a particular item in a text, which may or may not be about the context |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about
Example: in a manual about how to use the internet, a context might be 'running a search on the web'
Further Point: can be confused with 'co-text', which is text around a particular item in a text, which may or may not be about the context |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the words immediately around a particular item in the text which help to deduce its meaning
Example: on the way back to the market (the underlined words are the co-text of 'back')
Further Point: the co-text can be the same topic as the context (they are about the same things) or can be a digression away from the context |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: applying world or context knowledge in our decoding of the meaning of a text
Example: looking at a title of an article and then thinking about what is known about that 'topic' before starting to read
Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Bottom-up processing', which starts at individual parts of the text (words, discourse markers, etc) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: processing a text starting with the smaller elements of a text (words, sounds, etc) then building upwards to decode the text as a whole
Example: listening or reading for the times of a particular train
Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Top-down' processing, which starts from 'global knowledge' to process meaning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: using a mixture of 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' processing in order to decode meaning
Example: looking for your name on a list of exam results (top-down= knowing it's alphabetical, so starting roughly in the right place; bottom up= recognising your name)
Further Point: interactive processing is, in reality, what we normally do when trying to decode a text, although the 'perfect mixture' of the two is still up for debate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a mental representation of a situation or the context of a text
Example: If you see an article with the title 'riding a bike', you picture the act of riding a bike, which brings to mind words and possible situations involved with it e.g. falling off, mending a puncture, etc
Further Point once our schemata are activated, we can predict information and language within familiar circumstances, topics, etc, which aids top-down processing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves moving you eyes over the text quickly to get a general idea of the topic, content and main ideas
Example: looking quickly over an essay you find that a) it is about computers, b) the 1st paragraph is on advantages, c) the 2nd paragraph is on disadvantages, and d) that the author thinks computers are good
Further Point: involves interactive processing - through recognition of words combined with prediction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves looking through a text very quickly to find specific information
Example: you want to find the birth and death year of a famous person, so you look very quickly through a text focusing on years until you find it
Further Point: often involves bottom-up processing in that you are trying to find specific word items. You know what you are looking for. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the use of idealised model texts in order to give students an example of what is expected in their writing, in terms of layout and structure
Example: giving students a model application letter for analysis, then trying to imitate it within the confines of a new 'question'
Further Point: this was the first systematic approach to teaching writing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: an approach to writing where what the writer does is of prime importance
Example: task analysis, brainstorming, planning, drafting, editing and re-writing would be a typical process for writing
Further Point: the process approach still required some analysis of genre and models before the student could decide what needed to be written |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: an approach to writing that prioritises the relationship between the reader and the writer - the purpose of the text, the social context and intended audience
Example: analysing authentic examples to consider how and why they have been written as well as language and layout
Further Point: recently there has been a move to combine approaches - the 'genre-process approach', which combines analysis of authentic examples of the genre with good procedures in the writing process |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a skill that allows the speaker (or writer) to report something said in a different way, or to circumlocute difficulties
Example: A: "He totally blew his top."
B: "You mean he got angry? Why?"
Further Point: paraphrase is often used in academic writing to outline what other authors have said without resorting to a quote |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers back to a previously mentioned item in a text.
Example: "Susan lives just round the corner. She's my best friend." 'She' refers back to 'Susan'
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to cataphoric reference (refers forward) and exophoric reference (refers to something 'outside' the text, which is common knowledge) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers forward to another thing mentioned later in the text
Example: "Given that it is bad for you, smoking still remains very popular." 'It' refers forward to 'smoking'
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back) and exophoric reference (refers outside the text) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something 'outside' of the text, which is commonly known by all
Example: "Share prices slumped in the City today." 'The city' refers to the economic centre of a country, which is assumed knowledge.
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back within the text) and anaphoric reference (refers forward within the text) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something that you would only understand if you were present in the original conversation
Example: "Can you pass me that, please?" You would only understand what 'that' was if you were present in the conversation
Further Point: : often accompanied by hand gestures or other body language (paralinguistic features) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: use of (usually) determiners and adverbs of place and time to substitute a previous element to avoid repetition. A type of grammatical cohesion.
Example: "Shall we meet at the King's Head pub?" "Okay, see you there." 'There' is substituted for 'the King's Head pub'
Further Point: very similar in function to anaphoric reference, but that is usually demonstratives or pronouns and the definite article |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the missing out of words in informal speech or writing. A type of grammatical cohesion.
Example: "Where you going?" Here, the auxiliary 'are' has been elided or 'Having a great time' in a postcard
Further Point we commonly elide subject pronouns and auxiliaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: repetition of all or part of a grammatical structure or pattern
Example: "We will fight them on the beaches. We will fight them on the landing grounds. We will fight them in the fields and in the trees." Here, 'we will' has been paralleled again and again.
Further Point: normally used for dramatic effect |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Definition: the repeating of key lexis. A type of lexical cohesion as it provides language links throughout a text
Example: "This year we'll be stronger because this year we need to be. This year we deserve it." 'This year' has been repeated again and again.
Further Point: normally used for clarity or dramatic effect |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and information. However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language". In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.
Language used in hedging:
1. Introductory verbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest
2. Certain lexical verb e.g. believe, assume, suggest
3. Certain modal verbs: e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could
4. Adverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usually |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The ability to produce grammatically-correct language (contrast with fluency). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Teaching which is based on adherence to a particular theory about language or language learning. |
|
|
Term
| appropriacy/appropriateness |
|
Definition
| The most suitable choice of language for the situation, the relationship between speakers, the topic, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Spoken or written texts from real-life sources, originally intended for native speakers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Teaching a pronunciation pattern by getting learners to repeat successively longer portions of it, starting with the last part and extending backwards to the beginning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A group activity in which learners come up with ideas themselves on a topic without teacher intervention. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An activity in which groups of students have a brief discussion to generate ideas, answer specific questions, etc. (similar to brainstorm). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The linking of ideas or concepts in a text to express the underlying message which may or may not be marked by explicit cohesive devices. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The linking of sentences and paragraphs in a text through the use of formal features, such as pronouns, and sequence expressions, such as, therefore, next, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A technique in which the teacher draws information from learners through question and answer, |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Imperfect production caused by genuine lack of knowledge about the language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The judgement of something, such as a learner's performance, a class, a task, a book. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A person (usually the teacher) who helps learners find their own answers rather than providing them with the 'right' answers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The actual words (written) or sounds (spoken) used to express something in language as opposed to meaning or use. Often synonymous with structure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The stage of a lesson in which the teacher does not intervene or attempt to control learner production. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The communicative purpose of a structure on a particular occasion- what the speaker is trying to do through language (e.g. inviting, suggesting). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The type of text e.g. a magazine, a letter, a note. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Adjusting language or tasks to suit the ability level of students. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The way a group of people interacts with one another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A guess about something which is not explicitly stated in a text - 'reading between the lines'. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Language which learners experience in a lesson from which they can learn. It can also refer to information, or a mini-lecture, given by a trainer to trainees. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All or some of the language skills together (listening, speaking, reading and writing). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Careful reading to obtain detailed understanding of a text. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Patterns of communication (verbal and non-verbal) between people. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An activity which involves the splitting of a text into different parts or the use of different texts on the same topic. The parts are given to different learners to read. They must communicate with each other in order to find out the whole message or different views on the topic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the questions that the teacher uses to draw attention to the meaning or use of the structure, or the main ideas of a text. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| he effect of the mother tongue on a learner's production of the foreign language, causing errors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| listening, speaking, reading and writing. also involve grammar and vocabulary. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learning situations where information and ideas are brought to the class by learners and used as learning material, and which are concerned with the interests, needs, learning styles, feelings, lives and/or values of learners. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A process or technique which a learner uses to help herself learn a language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The way a particular learner learns something; their preferred style of working. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Another term for vocabulary. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A group of related words, a word family |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A drill which cannot be performed correctly without an understanding of the meaning of what is said. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A drill which requires learners to produce correct examples of the language without needing to think about the meaning of the sentences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Language used for talking about language, e.g. the use of grammatical terms (noun, verb, etc) or linguistic terms (e.g. paralinguistics) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a set of techniques and procedures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A teaching situation which has been reduced in some way (e.g. the teacher's task is simplified, the lesson is very short, the number of learners is small). It is often used on training courses to concentrate on one particular aspect of a trainee's teaching and can involve real students or fellow trainees acting as students. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A slip of the tongue which the learner can self-correct when challenged because it is not caused by lack of knowledge. A mistake is sometimes referred to as a performance error. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gathering information by watching a class in order to describe what is happening. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Whole class activity, often at the feedback stage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When learners communicate about themselves or their own lives (also personalised task). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A stage in the lesson when a language item is introduced for the first time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| To prepare learners for an activity by introducing new language before starting the topic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Speaking and writing - learners are required to produce the language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A kind of task-based activity which usually involves an extended amount of independent work either by an individual student or group of students. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A form of group activity in which the class is divided into groups. After some " time, the pairs are joined together and continue the discussion. This procedure is continued until there is only one group, consisting of the whole class. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| To put items in a certain order, often in order of preference or importance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Things from real life which are used as a teaching aid. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A drill which is disguised to resemble a natural conversational drill. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Listening and reading - learners are receiving language and processing it, without producing it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A group activity which imitates (simulates) real life situations. Learners play themselves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A description of learning which involves the performance of a specified task or tasks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The area that a teacher uses in the classroom while teaching. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A written record of what happens in a classroom. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The way a teacher makes a link between two separate parts of a lesson. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Refers to examples of language that are correct grammatically and have meaning, but which have no communicative value. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The way in which a speaker uses a particular language form to communicate in a particular situation for a particular purpose. Rules of use refer to knowledge of when and with whom an item should be used i.e. appropriacy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A task-based group activity which involves the completion of a specified task. All members of the group will contribute something to the completion of the task (e.g. trainees produce some teaching material). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An activity where learners have to solve a problem (e.g. choose the best applicant for a job from several descriptions of applicants). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a piece of vocabulary to be taught - not only the meaning of single words but also phrases, idioms, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which is used instead of a noun perhaps because you have already talked about the person or thing, eg I, they, which. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which describes an action or a state of being, eg eat, like, know. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which describes or gives more information about a verb or an adjective, eg he walked quickly, she danced well. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which describes something or someone, eg beautiful, happy, long. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show time, place or direction, eg at, on, in. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show time, place or direction, eg at, on, in. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which connects words and phrases in a sentence, eg but, and, although. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A word which is used before a noun to show which particular example of the noun you are referring to, eg this pencil, your shoes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An interjection is a word that is used to express emotion, eg Oh no! Gosh! Ow! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| What idea the word shows and what contexts the word applies to. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learners need to know if the word has a positive or a negative sense to it. For example, the words 'slim' and 'skinny' both mean thin but one has a positive connotation (slim) and the other (skinny) doesn't. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learners need to know which words go with the word they are learning. For example, we make beds but do housework. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learners need to know other words that are formed from the same word, for example, kind, unkind, kindness, kindly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learners need to know if the word should be used in formal or informal situations. For example, assist and help have the same meaning but assist is more formal then help. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| verb plus particle, having one complete meaning (eg, prop sth up, hold on, climb down) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two or more words that have one complete meaning (eg, bear in mind, in front of, of course) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adding prefixes or suffixes to a root word (eg, untie, resecure; equipment, treatment) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| putting two or more words together to make one word (eg, handbook, shoulder-bag, doghouse) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two or more words that frequently go together (eg, black coffee, dark chocolate, naked body, bare feet) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a verb with a direct object (eg, bring, hit, get over) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a verb without a direct object (eg, go, appear, get up) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| words that sound the same but have different meanings (eg, bear / bare, accept / except) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| words that are members of the same group (eg, shoes, sandals, slip-ons) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| this describes phrasal verbs that cannot take a direct object between the verb and the particle (eg, get over sth, get away with sth) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| this describes phrasal verbs that can take a direct object between the verb and the particle (eg, get sth back) |
|
|
