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| binds CO w/ much greater affinity than myoglobin |
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| single chain, stores O2 in muscle |
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| aorta => arteries => arterioles => capillaries => venules => veins |
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| – single layer walls; exchange of gases, nutrients, and cellular wastes |
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lower chambers of heart
-Right Side of heart pumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation
-Left Side of heart pumps oxygenated blood into systematic circulation |
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| pulmonary vein & umbilical vein – |
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| carry oxygenated blood (unlike other veins) |
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| allows blood to bypass the liver |
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| allows blood to bypass pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the right atria |
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| conducts some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta (bypassing the lungs) |
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| – collect interstitial fluid and return it to circulatory system maintaining balance of body fluids; second function: collect chylomicrons from small intestine; can initiate an immune response against anything foreign |
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| main component of extracellular fluid of multicellular animals; has a diff. composition depending on type of surrounding tissue & area of the body |
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| is composed of both liquid (55%) and cellular components (45%) |
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| is liquid portion of blood – mix of salts, gases, wastes, hormones |
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| Erythrocytes (red blood cells) |
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| come from stem cells in bone marrow; oxygen carrying component; contains tons of hemoglobin; phagocytized after 120 days |
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| Leukocytes (white blood cells) |
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| protective functions; some phagocytize foreign matter, others migrate from blood to tissue; ex macrophages and lymphocytes |
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| cell fragments, lack nuclei; involved in clot formation; come from fragmentation of large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes |
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| platelets that come into contact w/ exposed collagen release chemical that adheres platelets to one another forming a PLUG. This causes thromboplastin to convert prothrombin => thrombin; thrombin converts fibrinogen => fibrin; fibrin coats damaged area and traps blood cells to form a CLOT |
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= SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)
• Stroke volume = volume of blood discharged from the ventricles with each contraction.
• Cardiac output = volume discharged from ventricle each minute.
• Stroke volume = end systolic volume – end diastolic volume. |
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| when open allow both Na+ & Ca2+ down gradient; stay open longer than fast sodium channels; causing membrane depolarization to last longer in cardiac musc |
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| hold together adjacent cells of cardiac muscle, allow cardiac muscles fibers to transmit electrical impulses rapidly (disks have low resistance to impulses) |
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composed of two mechanisms; humoral and cell mediated
Humoral – production of antibodies; ** humoral doesn’t joke around, its really “anti-humoral” (humoral = antibodies)** Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins [5 classes of immunoglobulins – IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG (MADEG)]; they are complex proteins that bind to specific antigens
1. Binding of an antibody may directly inactivate the antigen
2. Binding of antibody can induce phagocytocis by macrophages
3. Antibodies on surface can activate the complement system to form holes in the cell membrane and lyse the cell
o “complement” system – chemical defense system to destroy microorganisms, complements immune system; serum proteins |
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| involves cells that combat fungal and viral infection; T helper cells activate B cells & T Killer cells; T helper is central controller of immune system |
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Skin, macrophages engulf foreign material, inflammatory response (injured cells release histamine which causes blood vessels to dilate)
o interferons – small proteins made by most body cells after a viral attack; class of glycoproteins called cytokines; produced in response to bacterial, parasitic, and foreign agents, including tumors |
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| large white blood cells derived from monocytes, engulfs antigen and presents it to T cells |
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| phagocytic cells (do NOT develop into macrophages) |
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| – Type AB = universal recipient / Type O = universal donor |
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| maintains pH of internal fluids of all cells; H2PO4- and HPO42- act as acid & base; amphoteric |
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| – maintains pH of extracellular fluid; HCO3- & H2CO3, amphoteric |
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| – another antigen that can be present on red blood cells / + or -/ can lead to pregnancy issues if the mother carries anti-Rh antibodies |
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| plant hormones that may induce certain plants to flower & stem elongation |
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| stimulates fruit ripening |
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| inhibitor of plant growth hormones |
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| plant hormones that promote cell division |
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thick walled; carry water and minerals UP plant / 3 mechanisms
• Transpiration Pull – vacuum created from water evaporation on leaves
• Capillary action – liquid rises due to surface tension and interactions b/w liquid and tube
• Root Pressure – water enters and pressures the water up the stem |
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| thin walled; on outside of vascular bundle; transport nutrients DOWN |
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| two layers thick; undifferentiated cells, give rise to xylem/ phloem; type of meristem |
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| xylem, phloem, and cambium layers |
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| actively dividing, undifferentiated cells |
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