Cummins

Language comprised of BICS and CALP

CULP helps

4 Quadrants that allow one to assess the level of difficulty of teaching materials/activities for EL's.

BICS at the top

CALP at the bottom

Context embedded on the left

Context reduced on the right

"A" refers to BICS that is context embedded.

"B" refers to BICS that is context reduced.

"C" is CALP that is context embedded.

"D" is CALP that is context reduced.

See this link:

http://www.azusausd.k12.ca.us/bilingual/pdf%5CCummins2.pdf

Krashen

NAMIA

Comprehensible Input

Natural Order Hypothesis: Babbling, holophrasic, two-word, multiword/silent or Preproductive, Early Productive, Speech Emergence Stage, Intermediate Language Proficiency (applies to formal language learning)

Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: learn by doing, just like L1. Formal inst. helpful but not essential

Monitor Hypothesis: Learners self-monitor

Input Hypothesis:Learn what is comprehensible, connect to prior knowledge, gain at rates just above language you already know.

Affective Filter Hypothesis: need to be in right frame of mind to learn a new language. Stress creates a barrier to learning.

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

Conversational English

Concrete examples

not abstract

informal

native speakers up to age 3-4

English learners 6 mo. to 2 years

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

School language

Process language

Abstract

idioms, humor

Formal speaking registers

Native speakers ages 10-12

English learners 5-7 years

specific discipline-specific language

Common Underlying Language Proficiency

Concept knowledge transfers across languages

Building up L1 pays off in L2

Additive v. subtractive bilingualism

L1 is an asset: concepts transfer, cognates, bilingual dictionary

Receptive: Listening/Reading

Expressive: Writing/Speaking

Cognitive and Social Strategies to help 2nd language learners

• repetition
• formulaic expressions
• elaboration
• encouraging self-monitoring
• encouraging and responding to appeals for assistance
• role playing

REEFER

Smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning.

When phonemes exist in L1 but not L2 negative transfer can occur

When phonomes are shared positive transfer can occur

Small phonemic variations that don't change meaning (accents)

Meaningful linguistic unit, can be a word or part of a word.

Prefixes, individual words, contracted word forms, inflections

Describes the level of meaning of individual words and of word relationships in messages

Denotation

Connotation

Pitch that changes meaning in words, especially in languages that are tonal

Pragmatics

Language as it is used in different circumstances or settings; bar talk v. church talk (social context)

1. Using language for different purposes or functions (speech functions):

Greetings, demanding, informing, promising, requesting

2. Changing language according to the needs of the listener.

3. Following the rules for conversations and storytelling:

• how close to stand
• taking turns
• using facial expressions
• body language
• introducing topics of conversation

FAR

Function

Audience

Rules

intonation, pitch, modulation, semantics, syntax, linguistic issues

learning words in a rich, engaging context (word lists don't work very well)

structural analysis (looking at roots, prefixes, suffixes)

word attack skills

cognates

context clues

bilingual dictionaries

visuals

Denotation: specific, literal image, idea, concept, or object

Connotation: Cultural assumptions that the word or image suggests. Involves emotional overtones, subjective interpretation, socio-cultural values, ideological assumptions

Pragmatic Skills

formal v. informal registers

idiomatic expressions

gestures

eye contact

physical proximity

PEG IF

Diverse needs

Diverse goals

peer groups

role models

home support

language distance

native language proficiency

knowledge of second language

dialect and register

language status

language attitudes

learning styles

motivation

classroom interaction

Tapping prior knowledge

Building background/schema

Setting content and language objectives

L-1 as learning asset

Preparing opportunities for interaction

Checking for understanding

Designing higher order thinking projects

• Use L1 with parents and other adults
• Bilingual dictionaries
• Preview-review
• Peer support
• L1 resources tied to textbooks
• L1 technology
• Seal of biliteracy

Thumbs up/thumbs down

Nod yes/no

Explain to your team in your L1

Demonstrate

Show me

Point to object

Illustrate

Create a model

Draw

Either___or____

Is this a ___ or a _____?

One word answer/short answer

Make a list

Steps in a sequence

Complete a sentence frame or template

Complete a graphic organizer

Either ___ or ____ Why?

Compare/contrast, sequence

Describe

Who, what, where, when, why, how?

In a fully phonemic orthography, a grapheme corresponds to one phoneme. However this is very much the exception. In spelling systems that are to some extent non-phonemic, such as in English, multiple graphemes may represent a single phoneme. These are called digraphs (two graphemes for a single phoneme) and trigraphs (three graphemes). For example, the word ship contains four graphemes (s, h, i, and p) but only three phonemes, because sh is a digraph. Conversely, a single grapheme can represent multiple phonemes, or no phonemes at all in the case of 'silent' letters: the English word "box" has three graphemes, but four phonemes: /ˈbɒks/.^[1]

Furthermore, a particular grapheme can represent different phonemes on different occasions, and vice versa. For instance in English the sound /f/ can be represented by 'F', 'f', 'ff', 'FF', 'ph', 'PH', 'Ph', 'gh', 'GH', and in some place names of Welsh origin by 'Ff'; while the grapheme 'f' can also represent the phoneme /v/ (as in the word of).

Electricity, electrician, electric uses c to represent: s, sh, k

80% or more commonality=dialect

less than 80% commonality=language

Limited English Speaking

Non-English Speaking

EL

English Learner

AYP sub-group most often failing to meet goal

Non-nons'

Protrated English learners

Title VII of Elementary and Secondary Act 1968

Schools change for child not child change for the schools

Preference given to hiring bilingual teachers

When language deficiencies get in way of learning, schools have to carry out affirmative actions to correct the problem.

Schools have to do more than just provide equality in terms of books, classrooms, teachers, and curriculum. They have to help kids understand English so they can participate fully in learning academic subject matter.

Set standards for EL programs:

Must have a sound plan.

Must have the staff to carry out the plan.

Must evaluate how well the plan works.

Didn't require this but did require that "appropriate action to overcome language barriers" be taken.

Required immersion program in English. English only initiative.

Identification of sub-groups.

Has had side-effect of narrowing curriculum.

States must:

identify English Learners

Measure their English proficiency

Include EL's in state testing, including academic testing in grades 3-8

Must include EL's in AYP

AMAO

Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives for ELL's must be set and measured and included in AYP.

Schools must provide equal access.

• equal opportunities to learn
• careful non-ostracizing
• bilingual teachers training in ESL or ELD
• appropriate text and other materials

• right to know why their child is being placed in EL classes
• right to be involved in the decision-making process under Title III
• right to be notified of a child being placed in Title III program within 30 days of the beginning of the school year.

Home Language Survey

• placed in student's cum file
• Based on results, student is given CELDT within 30 days of enrollment
• A letter is sent to parents with result
• Based on results of CELDT student is placed appropriately

• measures four domains
• is not grade specific, instead measures grade spans
• must be administered by a trained person

English Language Development Standards

Identify what EL's must be able to do as they progress through the K-12 system

4 domains

Standards divided into five levels:

• beginning
• early intermediate
• intermediate
• early advanced
• advanced

Student Oral Language Observation Matrix

measures: grammar, fluency, comprehension. vocabulary, pronunciation

School district establish own reclassification criteria but must include:

• Proficient on all CELDT subtests not lower than intermediate
• Passing score on state achievement test
• Teacher input (grades, write-ups, conferences)
• Parent consultation

Learners need to be able to:

• define the word
• use the word 
• know the word's multiple meanings
• decode and spell the word

Tier I: common everyday words usually leaned through listening and interacting with peers and adults along with lots of non-verbal clues. These words are not usually taught.Strategies: visual clues, role plays, explain common idioms, cognates and false cognates.

Tier II: Academic words. Rich vocab usually encountered in written text. Must be taught and pretaught before reading.  Strategies: gestures, demonstration, pictures, realia, cognates.

Tier III: Specific nomenclature of an academic discipline. Strategies: dictionary, teach Greek and Latin roots, illustrated student dictionaries.

Language Experience Approach

Great for older learners.

Steps:

• Create a shared experience.
• Ask the group to retell or describe the experience.
• Write down the retelling, including the names of contributers
• Do a group editing session. 

Follow Up

• Create a drawing or storyboard
• Select high-frequency words to teach
• Make flash cards with high frequency words
• Select a phonics skill or letter recognition skill to teach and practice

Implies that all students have the same opportunity to succeed in school, and that their teachers will make their instruction understandable so that students do not experience barriers to learning.

Applying Universal Access to English Learner Instructional Materials

• Building shared background
• Previewing vocabulary and pre-teach it
• Using L-1 resources to support comprehension
• Matching visuals and illustrations to the text
• Using graphic organizers to access higher levels of thinking without sole reliance on words
• Using individualized technology

Achieving Universal Access

• Know student's proficiency levels
• Have repetoire of teaching techniques to draw on
• Plan ahead and reflect afterwards

ELD: English Language Development Standards have four domains: listening, reading, writing, and speaking. Designed in 1999 they describe what EL students must know and be able to do as they develop fluency in the ELA standards. Levels: beginning, early intermediate, intermediate, early advanced, advanced.

ELA: English Language Arts Standards

ELD Standards are by proficiency level

ELA Standards are by grade level

ELD standards are an on-ramp to the ELA standards

Many academic speech functions: reporting, greeting, asking, interviewing, ordering, borrowing,paraphrasing, agreeing, disagreeing etc.

• Determine which functions are needed
• Plan to teach them
• Set up authentic situations to use them
• Model them
• Reinforce their use with wall charts and editors' word banks for writing.

1. Know proficiency

2. Determine roadblocks

3. Utilize student's primary language

4. Preview textbook and content standards to plan access strategies

ELD is a subject, like a foreign language

SDAIE is a set of techniques

ELD focuses on the the elements of the new language

SDAIE focuses on learning new content standards

1. Learn content standards

2. Improve language skills as a byproduct

BOVCGPI

Bill Organized Very Carefully his Gum, Pigs and Igloos

• Determine background knowledge that may be needed
• Plan content and language objectives
• List the vocab and idioms to preteach
• Identify visuals and realia
• Prepare leveled checking for understanding activities
• Design graphic organizers
• Identify primary language support
• Develop interaction, cooperative activities, or peer tutoring

• Culturally familiar examples
• Gestures and body language
• Clear and slower speech
• Write down information
• Eye contact
• Visuals
• Demonstrations
• Cognates

Can Good Cows Want Every Valentine's Day Corrupted?

• Team Teaching
• Preview-Review
• Peer Tutoring
• Educational technology

TPPE

• Ask students to bring objects from home to use in the lesson
• Provide conversion chart to share with family
• Provide a bilingual dictionary or glossary for students to use at home
• Invite families in for math night
• Provide translators in meetings
• Remember kids may not have books at home
• Transportation may be difficult to arrange
• Parents may not know about all of the resources available
• Parents may rely on child for child care and other responsibilities
• neighborhoods may not be safe
• Concerns about tardiness may not be shared

5 Principles of CALLA

1. Recognize and build on student's primary knowledge
2. Provide meaningful learning tasks
3. Engage in interactive teaching and learning
4. Focus on learning processes and strategies
5. Help students evaluate their own learning

Recognize Meaningful Interactive Learning and Assess

• Modeling (Think alouds, metacognition)
• Bridging
• Contextualization (Thematic instruction)
• Schema building (build on background knowledge)
• Metacognitive development
• Text representation
• Primary language support (Preview in L1, audio summaries, pair same L1 students, dual language programs, tech)
• Use media, tech resources, and other visual supports: video, posters,pictures, bilingual dictionary
• Formative and summative assessment and reteaching (use alternate ways for students to show what they know)

Model bridges while setting context and schema for metacognition, text representation, and primary language support

• Use repetition
• Slow rate of speech
• gestures and body language
• Explain idioms or multiple meaning words

• Use culturally familiar examples to build concept background
• Use realia,visuals
• Use primary language
• Build on what students already know

• Differentiation is evident
• Includes bridges to other cultures and languages
• In L1
• Culturally respectful and multicultural
• No stereotypes, negative portrayals, downplaying of struggles or injustices
• literary translations as opposed to literal translations
• Matches regional language variations of students
• L1 materials reviewed by people who speak the L1

Syllabic Awareness comes first for Spanish

Phonemic Awareness first for English

• Comprehensible input
• Visuals match text on the page
• Supplemental visual supports: posters,studyprints, OT's, photos, reproduction of documents.
• Prior knowledge referred to?
• Interactive, hands on, demonstrations?
• Captions, headers, margin notes that allow for students to read the text in brief?
• Questions that engage students at all levels of proficiency? 
• Graphic Organizers,matrices, webs, Venn Diagrams, story maps, class-note outlines
• EL alternatives for homework
• Ways to involve the home
• Bilingual supports: glossary

• Compact Language: lots of 2-3 letter words
• Adjectives,nouns, verbs have no ending to denote gender
• No formal or informal registers
• Only one definite article
• Lots of multiple meaning words
• Lots of homophones

Correct:

• high frequency errors
• stigmatizing errors
• errors that block meaning

How to correct:

• Model back correct wording
• Encourage peer editing
• Make notes of errors and conduct group editing
• Anticipate errors by previewing text

• Speaking and listening precede reading and writing
• No use of L1
• develop language skills through habit formation
• lots of structured dialogues and drills
• emphasis on error free speech
• keep the printed word away from the learner as long as possible

Develop language skills in a natural context. Students acquire language through interaction in authentic, and meaningful learning experiences.

Principles:

1. Comprehension precedes production. Students don't produce speech until they are comfortable doing so.
2. Production occurs in stages
3. Emphasis is on meaning not correct form early on
4. Keep anxiety level low.

1. Simulates how we first learn languages
2. Teaches oral proficiency at the beginning level
3. Uses comprehension as a means of speaking
4. Uses action-based drills in the imperative form
5. Builds on a structural view of language
6. Has a low affective filter because speaking is delayed

1. Select basic commands
2. Speak and demonstrate them
3. Repeat
4. Speak, demonstrate, and invite listeners to participate too
5. Repeat
6. Speak w/o demonstration;listeners participate
7. Substitute new vocabulary

Use content of various disciplines to teach language with a primary emphasis on language development

• TPR with basic commands
• TPR with pictures
• Reading stories aloud with picture clues
• Completing cartoon strip dialogues
• Listening in English and retelling in L1
• Matching pictures and words
• Sorting/classifying objects
• Word sorting based on phonics or concepts
• Naming characters from stories or pictures
• Associating sentences to pictures
• Drawing objects from discussion
• Following a set of directions
• Reading aloud to complete a task, recipe, or art project
• Patterned responding using audio-lingual strategies
• Sequencing events based on pictures or familiar short narratives

Bilingual means two languages

• Submersion program: Sink or swim
• Newcomer program: Helps EL's adjust as they get placed.
• Transitional Bilingual Program: Also known as early exit, maintains and develops skills in the primary language and culture while maintaining, and developing skills and knowledge in English
• Structured English Immersion Program: Specially trained teachers immerse kids in L2,
• Maintenence Bilingual Program: Late exit program, goal is proficiency in both languages
• Dual Language Program: Mix of learners and speakers, goal of bilingualism

Teaching ELA

1. Word analysis, Fluency, Systematic Vocabulary Development
2. Reading Comprehension
3. Literary Response and Analysis

Keeps a student's culture in mind in all aspects of teaching.

• Positive perspectives on parents and families:research families, visit community centers, tour neighborhoods
• High expectations: set clear expectations, safe environment, rewards for achievement
• Learning within the context of culture
• Student-centered instruction
• Culturally mediated instruction:center instruction around a knowledge of student's culture, let cultural differences into the room, talk about it, acknowledge it, use it to further leaning goals.
• Reshaping the curriculum
• Teacher as facilitator: research topics in the community, guest speakers, interviews, alternative viwepoints and perspectives, thematic instruction

• Personal space
• eye contact
• Body language
• Facial expression
• Gesture
• Touch

In Building Design

• Flexibility in use
• Simple and intuitive
• Perceptible information
• Tolerance for error
• Low physical effort
• Size and space for approach and use

In classroom

• Fitting instruction to student needs
• Preplanning instruction through lesson plans that serve as well-designed blueprint
• Build shared background
• Preview vocab and preteach it
• Use L1 supports as necessary
• Match visuals with text
• Use graphic organizers
• Engage parents

• Cooperative learning that raises student's status
• Considerate text
• Encourage use of primary language
• Modeling of other languages by teacher and other students

1. Convene complete multi-disiplinary team
2. Use pre-referral strategies to determine the source of the difficulties
3. Determine the language to be used in the assessment/assess language dominance
4. Conducting a tailored, appropriate assessment of the child. Desire to produce a multi-dimensional assessment

Find out what is out there so that linkages can be made and services can be accessed.

PESI

Preproduction: Silent period, context clues are critical

Early production:1-3 word combos, recite simple poems or songs

Speech emergent: more complex/sentences with syntactical errors

Intermediate fluency: sustained conversation, some self-correction

instrumental: getting needs met

regulatory: controlling others' behavior

informative: communicating information

interactional: establishing social relationships

personal: expressing individuality

heueristic: investigating and acquiring knowledge

imaginiative: expressing fantasy

A script is what linguists call a predictable pattern of rules for the use of language:

Turn taking

Topic focus and relevance

Conversational repair

Classroom discourse (teachers talk 70% of time, when ask for questions they are short with little wait time)

Behaviorists claim that the mind is a blank slate: a learner must be filled with content during the course of teaching. Strict principles of timing, repetition, and reward led to classroom methodology that incorporated extensive drill and practice of language components, from sounds to complex sentences. Audiolingualism: oral practice is key, repetitious training with teacher using correct grammatical forms. Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning: small units of language to learn, discrete facts, sequences, rules, immediate feedback to remediate (correct pronunciation, word recognition, low-level comprehension.

Language Acquisition Device: Noam Chomsky: Idea that mind contains a language acquisition device that generates rules through the acquistion of grammar.

Enables language users to use language appropriately in different contexts. These are the features of communicative competence:

Grammatical competence

Sociolinguistic competence: takes into account audience, the purpose of the interation, and the norms

Discourse competence: Language has to cohere

Strategic competence: makes appropriate changes in middle of conversation

Lev Vygotsky: "zone of proximal development" (the distance between what a language learner can do now and what they will be able to do later)

To develop language should be put in a social context

use lots of role plays

EL's learn a great deal through face to face interactions. The more learners talk, the more language they gain:

• knowledge of second language
• knowledge of native language
• functions of language
• general world knowledge

Study of the ways humans use signs to make meaning.

Activities are meaningful

Instruction demanding but scaffolded

Instruction built around themes

Collaborative grouping

Print rich environment

• phonemic awareness
• systematic, explicit phonics instruction
• sound-symbol relationships
• decoding
• word attack skills
• spelling instruction
• comprehension instruction
• independent reading of high quality books

1. Skill with print. Letters mean something, read from left to right, book held right side up etc.

2. Decoding text requires: semantic knowledge, syntactic knowledge, orthographic shape (looking at groups of letters)

1. Page and paragraph: fluent reader reads a page, EL reads a paragraph
2. Equal portions: pairs read equal portions and trade-off
3. Silent with support
4. Choral reading
5. Radio reading
6. Repeated reading
7. Interactive read-aloud
8. Echo reading
9. Nonprint media support

Directed Reading-Thinking Activity

Thinking aloud as one reads.

1. ideas/content
2. organization
3. voice
4. word choice
5. sentence fluency
6. conventions

I often voice concerns when sad.

• self-correct or peer correct
• grammar-check function
• Teach grammar function in the order they are acquired
• Be selective in correcting students' grammatical errors, focusing only on those that affect meaning

Content: content and language objectives, clear and meangful, support objectives

Connections: linked to student experiences, examples from student's lives, schema building

Comprehensibility: pictures, graphs, charts, models, diagrams, gestures, labels, dramatizations/variety of learning styles, demonstrations, speech adjustments, clear enunciation, controlled use of idioms, comprehension checks, recitation, paraphrase

Interaction:Lots--productive, of all varieties

phonological: (precise pronunciation)

syntactical: (shorter sentences, less subordination)

semantic: more concrete, basic vocab

pragmatic: more frequent pauses, exaggerated stress and intonation

discourse: self-repetition, slower rate

Instructional Strategies: Direct instruction, learning centers, internet discovery, individual task cards

Instructional Resources: Almanacs, computer software, magazines, manipulatives, research, films

Student support: Aides, specialists, tutors, classroom volunteers

Time and workload difficulty: Tiers and levels for projects, vary the level thinking skill, more/less modeling

Products and presentations: Individual oral presentations, team presentations, written reports, exhibits, demonstrations

Portfolios: work samples, discussions, behavioral observation

• Contributions
• Additive (Adding pieces to the curriculum
• Transformative: deals with issues of historic, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic injustice and equality as a part of the AMerican experience
• Social Action: Extension of transformative to include taking action to make a more just and equal society