Term
| What are two pieces of the historical context during the 70s when lifestyle exposure, opportunity and routine activities theory emerged? |
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Definition
| Victimization surveys (which tried to figure out who was being victimized, who was doing the victimization, what sort of victimization was involved, how often victimization occurred, etc.) were gaining popularity and crime rates were rising dramatically (victims were asking government to take action). |
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Term
T or F?
Victimology, opportunity theory, lifestyle exposure theory, routine activities theory and rational choice theory all tend to view the criminal event in terms of the time-space continuum (or environmental backcloth) and examine ways in which offenders and victims intersect in time and space, in the absence of a capable guardian. |
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Definition
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Term
| Lifestyle Exposure Theory |
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Definition
- Introduced in 1978 by Hindelang, Gottfredson and Garofalo (a different one)
- Lifestyles of individuals and groups follow certain patterns, e.g. where they go, when they go there, who they go with (or who they meet there), what they do when they get there
- Offenders don’t select victims at random; instead they follow similar lifestyle patterns to their victims and often resemble victims in terms of age, gender, social class and ethnic origin
- 8 propositions:
1) The more time you spend (esp. at night) in public places, the more likely you are to become a victim
2) Lifestyle choices influence the likelihood that you will spend more or less time in public places
3) People interact with other people who share similar lifestyles
4) The chances are higher of being victimized by someone who has the same demographic profile as you, in terms of age, gender, social class and ethnic background
5) Lifestyle choices influence the amount of time you spend with non family members or capable guardians
6) The chances of becoming a victim of crime increase with amount of time you spend with non family members
7) Lifestyle choices or differences influence your ability to isolate yourself from offenders
8) Variations in your lifestyle can influence how convenient and easy it is to victimize you |
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Term
T or F?
1. 2004 GSS found that rates of violent victimization were highest those over the age of 65 and lowest for those from 15-24.
2) Young people more likely to engage in public activities during the evening, whereas older people more likely to spend their evenings at home, or if not, at least in a low-risk environment
3) Rates of violent victimization much higher for single/divorced/separated individuals. |
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Definition
1) False: those over the age of 65 are LEAST likely to be victimized, while those from 15-24 are MOST likely to be victimized.
2. True
3. True: Single people are more likely to engage in evening activities outside the home. |
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Term
| Routine Activities Theory |
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Definition
- Introduced in 1979 by Lawrence Cohen & Marcus Felson
- Similar to lifestyle exposure theory – came out at roughly the same time, both based on victimization surveys
- Sought to explain why crime rates rose in 60s/70s despite economic prosperity
- Elements needed: 1) Motivated offender, 2) Suitable target 3) Absence of a capable guardian
- People travel between domains like family, leisure and work
- This creates the opportunity for crime as these offenders and victims intersect in time/space
- This theory notes that around the time of the rising crime rates, women, teens, etc. were beginning to work, thus leaving the house unattended
- There were also more people going to school, more schools to go to and more time spent in schools
- People were also shopping more/spending more time in recreational activities, thereby allowing for more opportunities to intersect with motivate offenders/become suitable targets |
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Term
T or F?
Routine activities theorists, rational choice theorists and environmental criminologists all argue that crime is caused less by economic deprivation and more by economic prosperity |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe Cohen, Kluegel and Land's work on social inequality and victimization. |
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Definition
- Cohen, Kluegel & Land (1981) agree that target attractiveness and the presence (or absence of a capable guardian) are contributing factors in the criminal event
- Also argue that most property crime is motivated by desire for economic gain – not simply because of the thrill or risk-taking element involved or because the opportunity presents itself
- Suggest that income levels have a measurable effect on crime rates
- Unemployed or lower income individuals living in urban centres at greater risk of victimization
- Higher income individuals able to avoid victimization by reducing their exposure to offenders through enhanced guardianship measures |
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Term
| The Structural Choice Model of Victimization |
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Definition
- Miethe & Meier’s structural choice model of victimization builds upon Cohen, Kluegel & Land’’s work
- Acknowledges impact of socio-economic inequality in shaping the criminal event
- Attempts to explain criminal event on “macro” (larger) scale, by integrating a number of different theoretical perspectives |
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Term
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Definition
- Developed by Marcus Felson
- AKA 'Divergent Metropolis'
- Refers to metropolitan areas that sprawl into seemingly endless suburbs
FOUR FEATURES:
- Dispersion of Construction – more single family homes, low rise buildings on large lots, areas with large parking lots
- Proliferating households – more elderly people living on their own, more young people moving out and setting up their own households
- Spreading of people over many vehicles – more people have their own cars
- Dispersing activities away from home – people go further to shop, to work and to play |
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Term
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Definition
| Hot spots refer to a small number of urban areas which attract a disproportionate amount of crime. AKA crime attractors and crime generators. |
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Term
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Definition
| Shopping centres or entertainment districts that attract people in large numbers, thus creating situations where motivated offenders and prospective victims can intersect in time and space. |
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Term
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Definition
| Individuals who are victimized repeatedly; those who have been victimized once are more likely to be victimized again. |
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Term
T or F?
Wolfgang's 1958 study of murders in Philadelphia found that victims precipitated their own murders 50% of the time. |
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Definition
| False: he actually found that they precipitated their murders 25% of the time; victims may provoke their assailant by making verbal threats, striking the first blow or producing a weapon. |
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Term
| “Criminal Homicide as a Situated Transaction” |
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Definition
- A study written in 1977 by David Luckenbil
- Examined 71 murders that occurred in one California county between 1963 and 1972
- Found that all these situated transactions occurred outside of the work environment, mostly during evenings and/or on weekends and took place in “permissive” or “informal” environments, e.g. at parties, on street corners, in bars or at home
- Luckenbil said the cause behind these homicides was real or imagined 'loss of face' |
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Term
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Definition
1. Incident or series of incidents leads to perceived “loss of face” for the offender, the victim or both. Could be caused by insults, making an offensive gesture, etc.
2. Offender interprets the victim’s actions as being “personally offensive”, in 39% of cases with the assistance/interpretation of onlookers
3. Offender seeks to re-establish face through retaliatory action, by issuing a verbal or physical challenge or demanding that the victim apologize or leave the scene
4. Victim refuses to apologize or leave the scene and reacts in manner that suggests that violent confrontation is an acceptable outcome. Victim may issue counter-challenges or even strike first blow, with onlookers (or the audience) encouraging escalation in 57% of cases
5. Fearing loss of face, the offender and victim commit themselves to a battle, with the winner likely to use a weapon |
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Term
| The 3 Components of the Criminal Event |
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Definition
- Precursors – circumstances that lead up to the criminal event
- Transactions – what happened, where it happened, when it happened, who was involved
- Aftermath – how do victims respond? How do offenders respond if they’re caught, convicted and punished? How does the general public react to crime? What are the actual costs of crime? |
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Term
T or F?
One of the main ways we find out about the cost of crime is through the Uniform Crime Report. |
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Definition
| False: One of the main ways we find out about the cost of crime is through victimization surveys or the GSS. |
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Term
| According to the GSS, how many violent incidents resulted in an injury and how many of these people sought medical care for their injuries? |
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Definition
| 25% of violent incidents resulted in injury and only 10% sought medical attention for their injuries. |
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Term
| According to the GSS, describe the breakdown of how victims were affected by robberies. |
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Definition
- 35% of robbery victims reported difficulties in carrying out their main activities (e.g. work, school, etc.)
- 39% said they were affected for period of between two days and a week
- 16% said their main activities had been disrupted for over two weeks |
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Term
| What is the difference between 'Household Victimization' and 'Theft of Personal Property'? |
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Definition
- Household victimization includes breaking and entering, theft of household property, automobile theft, etc. 63% of all reported losses (according to the GSS) were less than $500, while 42% were less than $100 after compensation from insurance companies.
- Theft of personal property on the other hand refers to having credit cards, money, or jewellery stolen while in shopping malls, commercial buildings, etc. 42% were less than $100 worth of goods taken. |
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Term
| What is the estimated annual cost of crime in Canada? |
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Definition
| The estimated annual cost of crime in Canada is $57 billion ($46 billion to health issues, lost wages and insurance settlements, $11 billion to the operation of the Criminal Justice System). However this figure does not include expenditures on private security, burglar alarm systems, or other theft prevention devices. If figures from GSS were used (Rather than figures from the UCR), the total annual cost of pain and suffering for all types of crime would be over $35 billion (not including direct economic losses, insurance costs), resulting in an estimate closer to $92 billion a year. |
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Term
T or F?
Most people feel safe from crime and think that their neighborhoods are safer than others. |
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Definition
| True: 94% feel safe from crime and 59% feel their neighborhoods are safer than other neighborhoods. |
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Term
| According to the GSS, what are the most common reactions to violent crime? |
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Definition
| 32% got angry, 26% didn’t feel anything, 20% felt upset and frustrated. |
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Term
| What is 'Vulnerability Conversion'? |
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Definition
- Some individuals become fearful of crime and may go through process known as vulnerability conversion
- Feel they are more susceptible to the dangers of life than they thought
- Being the victim of a serious (Especially “random”) crime can cause people to re-evaluate their notions about the world making sense, or about life being fair
- Victims may feel weak and helpless and even start to blame themselves |
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Term
| What is the difference between avoidance behaviours and defensive behaviours? |
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Definition
Avoidance behaviour - When people distance themselves from situations which they perceive to be dangerous. Ex. Staying away from the downtown core at night.
Defensive Behaviours - Precautionary measures people take to reduce their chances of being victimized (Ex. Getting a guard dog or a new alarm system) |
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Term
T or F?
Women are twice as likely to be violently victimized as men. |
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Definition
| False: In reality, rate of violent victimization is quite similar for men and women, except men are more likely to be physically assaulted or robbed, whereas women are 5x as likely to be victims of a sexual assault |
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Term
| What are 3 reasons why rates of victimization are higher in urban areas? |
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Definition
- More likely to encounter strangers from different cultural or social backgrounds
- More likely to encounter physical incivilities (e.g. broken windows, graffiti, run-down buildings, etc.)
- More likely to encounter social incivilities (e.g. drug and alcohol use in public places, panhandlers and squeegee kids on street corners, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
- AKA moral crusaders or claims-makers
- Individuals or groups who have the power to create and/or enforce social norms
- Includes lobbyists, pressure groups, professionals, specialists and even government officials or agencies |
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Term
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Definition
- 1978 book by Hall et al.
- Described the moral panic about muggings during Aug. 1972 – Aug. 1973, when muggings got much attention from the media, politicians, interest groups and various representatives of British criminal justice system
- This panic stemmed from a robbery in which an elderly man was stabbed to death, leading to public outcry, demands for stiffer sentencing, and war on violent crime
- Interest waned after a year, never clear if rates actually went up or if muggings were any different from what they used to call robberies |
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Term
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Definition
| Any relatively enduring pattern of social relationships through which domestic life is organized |
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Term
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Definition
| The social and physical setting within which family life is organized” |
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Term
| In recent times, how has family changed? |
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Definition
- According to 2006 Census figures, 38% of couples had no children living at home with them (compared with 34% two decades earlier)
- Proportion of single-person households increased from 20% to over 25% between 1981 – 2001
- More seniors now live alone as opposed to in health care facilities
- More young adults between the ages of 20 and 24 living at home with their parents (due to delayed marriage, pursuing further education and difficulty finding jobs)
- Probability of separation or divorce has increased substantially
- Probability of individuals entering into second or third relationship has increased substantially
- More step-families, with increasing number of family members having to adapt to step-parents, step-brothers or sisters, of half-brothers or sisters |
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Term
| Precursors to Family Violence |
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Definition
- Family life provides opportunities for conflict
- Family life is regarded as private; people reluctant to interfere
- Families are generally hierarchal or inegalitarian
- In traditional families, parents have more power than kids and husbands have more power than wives
- Historically, use of physical abuse has been more tolerated in the family setting than in other settings |
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Term
T or F?
Women report higher rates of spousal abuse. |
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Definition
| False: Men and women report similar rates of spousal abuse. The rates have remained stable. However, women much more likely to be choked, beaten or threatened with a weapon; men are more likely to be slapped, kicked, shoved or hit. |
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Term
T or F?
Women are more likely to sustain physical injuries because of violence and more likely to seek medical attention. |
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Definition
| True: 44% of women sustain physical injuries compared to 19% of men. 13% of women seek medical attention, compared to 2% of men. Most sustained bruises (92%) and some sustained cuts (40%). Women are more likely to bruise, men are more likely to get cuts. |
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Term
| What are the risk factors of spousal violence? |
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Definition
- 3x as high for those who live in common-law relationships
- 3x as high for those who had been living together for less than 3 years
- People under age 25 were 5x more likely to experience spousal violence than those over age 45
- Aboriginals reported 3x as much spousal violence as non-Aboriginals
- Aboriginals almost 2x as likely to have been choked, beaten, threatened with a weapon or sexually assaulted
- Close to 1/3 of victims report that their partner had been drinking prior to or at the time of the incident |
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Term
T or F?
Most violent transactions take place in the home. |
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Definition
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Term
T or F?
Consequences of spousal abuse are more serious for women than for men. |
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Definition
| True: Women are 3x more likely than men to fear for their lives, and/or to interrupt their daily activities. Also, women more likely to have been repeat victims of spousal violence and four to five times more likely to be killed by their male partner than the other way around. |
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Term
| Approximately what percentage of assaults against children under the age of 6 are committed by family members? |
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Definition
| Approximately 60% of assaults against children under the age of 6 are committed by family members. Close to 2/3 are by parents (including adoptive parents, stepparents, etc.) |
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Term
| Approximately what portion of homicides against kids/youth are committed by a close family member? |
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Definition
| Two-thirds of homicides against children and youth are committed by a close family member; 60% committed by the father and 32% by the mother. |
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Term
| What portion of sexual assaults are committed by family members? |
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Definition
| 1/3 of sexual assaults are committed by family members. Half of sexual assaults are committed by family members when the victim is under the age of six, slightly less than half when the victim is between the ages of six and ten. Usually, the is a male relative (1/3 the father, slightly less than 1/3 it's brothers, rest are other male relatives) |
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Term
| How many abductions of children are parental abductions? |
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Definition
| Over 2/3 of child abductions are parental abductions; the distribution of offenders is evenly split between mothers and fathers. |
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Term
| What are some of the precursors of violence against children? |
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Definition
- Main precursor is either frustration or an argument
- Young children and female children more likely to be killed/assaulted in a private dwelling (ie. the home)
- Males over age of 11 more likely to be assaulted on streets, at school, in parking lots or in other public places
- It is hard for younger children to escape abusive environments, hence the increased victimization in their home |
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Term
T or F?
In both physical and sexual assaults, almost half of children and youth do not sustain injuries of any kind. |
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Definition
| True: Even if they are injured, generally injuries are minimal and do not require medical care. Only 2% female kids and 1% of male kids sustain serious injuries. |
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Term
T or F?
Abused children and youth are more likely to be aggressive, abusive towards their future spouses or children, to suffer from other emotional problems and to engage in violent criminal activity when older. |
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Definition
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Term
T or F?
The 2004 UCR and the 2004 GSS both agree that the rates of household victimization are going down. |
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Definition
| False: The 2004 Uniform Crime Report suggests that property crime, motor vehicle theft and break-ins HAVE been declining since the 90s, but the 2004 GSS suggests that household victimization (As reported by survey participants) has continued to climb, increasing by 14% since 1999 and by 28% since 1993 |
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Term
T or F?
According to routine activities theory, opportunity theory and environmental criminology, crimes against the household are due to contemporary lifestyles. |
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Definition
| True: People are spending more time away from the home (travelling between the various domains of work, home and leisure) hence they are leaving their personal property at home unprotected more often. |
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Term
| Risk of Household Victimization is Higher When... |
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Definition
- In urban areas (compared to rural areas)
- One has lived in their dwelling for less than a year
- One is renting their dwelling (rather than owning)
- One is living in duplexes, row houses or semi-detached houses |
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Term
T or F?
Findings support theorists like Gottfredson and Hirschi who think that offenders commit crimes due to the spur of the moment, because of the thrill or excitement involved and that offenders are not motivated by the prospects of economic gain. |
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Definition
| False: Findings actually contradict theorists like Gottfredson and Hirschi. Higher income households tend to experience higher rates of victimization than lower income households. This supports explanations premised upon social strain, social inequality and relative deprivation. |
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Term
| Brantingham's Environmental Criminology |
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Definition
Says that:
- Offenders are unlikely to explore distant, unknown areas in search of suitable targets
- Offenders most likely to search for targets that fall within their normal activity space (i.e. where they conduct their day-to-day routine activities)
- Offenders prefer targets close to their own homes, because of time and difficulty involved in travelling long distances and dangers associated with venturing into unknown territory
- - Households most susceptible to victimization are those that offer the offender easiest access and lowest risk of detection and apprehension
- Offenders prefer corner dwellings on/close to major transportation routes especially inconspicuous dwellings that are partially hidden or where there is little or no surveillance |
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Term
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Definition
- Free time or spare time that is used specifically for recreation or play
- Activities that people voluntarily choose to engage in, because they are a source of pleasure or satisfaction |
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Term
T or F?
Teens have more leisure time than married couples or people who are working full time. |
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Definition
| True: In addition, many of their leisure activities may constitute teen offending (Ex. graffiti) and teen leisure is often spent in places with high rates of victimization and crime (Ex. raves, internet cafes, bar and sporting events). |
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Term
T or F?
Studies support the notion that media violence increases violence in real life. |
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Definition
False!
- Some studies found negative effects (i.e. watching media violence actually reduces violent behaviour in real life)
- Other studies found weak effects that could be explained by other factors (e.g. individuals who already display violent tendencies may be inclined to watch violent movies or violent TV programs)
- Many studies claiming to have found link between watching violent media and increases in aggression were conducted in artificial settings, where research subjects were encouraged to at in aggressive ways that would not be encouraged or tolerated outside of laboratory or research setting
- From a Routine Activities Approach, one study found that increased TV viewing reduced crime as motivated offenders/victims were at home watching TV instead of out in public places. Being at home provides capable guardianship. |
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Term
| 3 Claims About Violent Games |
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Definition
1) Claims re: induced seizures, attention inertia and poor academic performance
2) Claims that violent video games desensitize players to violence, and make them less empathetic to suffering of others
3) Claims that point-and-shoot games teach reflexes and motor skills required to shoot at targets with accuracy and without hesitation |
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Term
T or F?
A 2002 study of serious violent juvenile offenders incarcerated in an adult correctional facility in Florida found that one third had considered possibility of committing copycat crime, and one-fourth had actually attempted a copycat crime. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- (Aged 25) Gunman at the Dawson College Shooting in Montreal, September 13, 2006
- Wounded 19 (ranged from age 17-47) and killed one
- Not a student there (never was)
- Had three weapons on him (including a .45 handgun and assault rifle)
- Belonged to gun clubs and legally owned many weapons
- Wore a long, black trench coat, combat boots
- Liked to play Super Columbine |
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Term
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Definition
- Age 19, former student at Orange County High School, Gunman at the shooting there on August 30th, 2006
- Sent email beforehand to principal of Columbine
- When asked why he did it, said “Columbine. Remember Columbine.” |
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Term
T or F?
The internet may be viewed both as a “corrupter” and as a social setting that creates opportunities for motivated offenders and prospective targets (or victims) to intersect in time and space. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- By Walter Reckless
- A social control theory which says that if individuals have strong social bonds, they would be less likely to engage in crime
- Inner containment/outer containment keep individuals away from crime while inner pushes and external pulls draw individuals towards crime
- Inner containment = self control, good self-image, ability to tolerate frustration
- Outer containment = family values, institutional reinforcement, effective supervision
- Internal pushes = restlessness, impatience and anger
- External pulls = poverty, unemployment, the media, or delinquent friends |
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Term
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Definition
- A social control theory by Travis Hirschi
- Social bonds determine one's likelihood to resort to crime
4 STRANDS:
- Attachment = ties of affection and respect, with parents, school teachers
- Commitment = getting good education, learning trade or profession, finding a good job
- Involvement = being involved in school, in recreation, with family
- Belief = shared values – it’s wrong to steal, people should respect the law |
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Term
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Definition
- By Gottfredson and Hirschi
- Points to low self control as the cause of crime
- Tied in with Classical School’s “hedonistic calculus”
- Agree with opportunity theory or routine activities theory, and requirements for “a motivated offender, the absence of a capable guardian, and a suitable target” in order for crime to take place
- CAUSES: Low self control, caused by ineffective socialization/ineffective child-rearing
- CURES: Adequate child-rearing, Caregiver must monitor the child’s behaviour, recognize deviant behaviour when it occurs, and punish such behaviour |
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Term
T or F?
The likelihood of violent victimization decreases in proportion to the amount of time spent outside of one's home during evening hours. |
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Definition
| False: The likelihood of victimization INCREASES as one spends more time outside of home during evening hours. The 2004 GSS says that the highest rates of violent victimization were reported by individuals who engaged in 30 or more evening activities a month (4 times higher than those who engaged in less than 10 evening activities a month) |
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Term
T or F?
- If individuals routinely engage in lifestyles that expose them to violence (either through witnessing violent incidents or becoming the victims of violence), they are more likely to engage in violent offending themselves. |
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Definition
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Term
T or F?
Offenders make bad victims because they know how crimes usually go. |
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Definition
| False: Offenders make good victims because they are generally afraid of drawing attention to themselves by reporting the victimization to the police. |
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Term
T or F?
The 2004 GSS reports that individuals between 25-45 are least likely to report victimization to the police. |
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Definition
| False: The 2004 GSS reports that individuals between ages 15-25 are the least likely to report their victimization to the police. Further victimization goes unreported as many youth do not regard certain forms of violence (like fighting) as criminal behaviour. |
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Term
T or F?
Interpersonal violence and sexual assaults where offender and victim know each other are amongst offences least likely to be reported to police. |
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Definition
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Term
T or F?
Less than 10% of men and women have reported being abused in the context of a dating relationship. |
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Definition
| False: Somewhere between 20% and 40% of young adults have been assaulted at least once within context of a dating relationship |
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Term
| 4 Factors Contributing to Courtship Violence and Date Rape |
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Definition
- Family background of abuse
- Neglect and aggression
- Consumption of alcohol and/or drugs
- Age |
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Term
| 4 Risk Factors of Courtship Violence/Date Rape |
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Definition
- Females aged 12 -18 more likely than older females to be victimized
- Having female peers who have been sexually assaulted
- Prior victimization (previous sexual assaults) is a good predictor of future assaults
- Having a large number of boyfriends, past and present |
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Term
T or F?
The likelihood of courtship violence or data rape increases when the male is able to control the dating process – e.g. by providing transportation or choosing activity or location. |
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Definition
|
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Term
T or F?
Instances of date rape/courtship violence usually occur in crowded areas like clubs where nobody will notice. |
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Definition
| False: Transactions usually take place in parked cars, isolated areas, or in private residences of victim or offender, where there are few (if any) bystanders or witnesses who might intervene or call police |
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Term
| Why does opportunity theory suggest that tourists would make good targets? |
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Definition
- Tourists tend to be more vulnerable
- May not speak the language or be familiar with local customs
- May not recognize areas in which they are at increased risk of victimization |
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Term
T or F?
Tourists have higher rates of victimization than the general population. |
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Definition
| False: The general population actually has higher rates of victimization than tourists because tourists stay away from trouble spots, leave their money in the hotel safe, or carry traveller’s cheques |
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Term
T or F?
Main types of tourism-related crimes are theft and robbery. |
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Definition
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Term
| How has the workplace changed in the past few decades? |
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Definition
- Better paying, full-time manufacturing jobs have been disappearing, replaced by lower paying (often part-time) service jobs
- More females (including married women) are now working, and in some cases, moving into occupational positions traditionally held almost exclusively by males
- Technological changes – e.g. computers, cell phones and email – have had a dramatic effect on how workplace is structured
- More people are now able to do some or all of their work at home, but at the same time, lines between the workplace and private life are becoming blurred |
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Term
T or F?
Researchers have found a strong link between unemployment and crime, as suggested by theories like anomie theory, relative deprivation theory and social disorganization theory. |
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Definition
| False: Researchers have found weak or even negative relationship between these two factors |
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Term
T or F?
Employed teens are less likely to engage in crimes than unemployed teens. |
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Definition
| False: Employed teens are actually more likely to engage in crime because they are away from home more often, they have their own money and they may have their own transportation |
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Term
| What would Routine Activities/Opportunity theorists say about the link between unemployment and crime? |
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Definition
- Routine activities/opportunity theorists suggest that weak or negative relationship between unemployment and crime caused by fact that unemployed people have less disposable income
- They are more likely to engage in leisure activities at home or within their own neighborhoods (Avoiding offenders)
- They are at home or close to their home and thus able to protect their property from would-be offenders |
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Term
| Which occupations are at higher risk of being assaulted? |
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Definition
- Police officers, prison guards, probation officers, nurses, mental health workers and welfare workers - they come into repeated contact with high risk groups of offenders
- Bartenders, hospitality workers (e.g. waitresses) and recreation workers (e.g. at amusement parks) - they come into regular contact with large numbers of strangers
- Taxi-drivers and newspaper vendors - more likely robbed because they usually have cash on them and come into frequent contact with the public |
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Term
| Which occupations are at a lower risk of being assaulted? |
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Definition
- Farmers
- Tech support (ex. Call center workers) |
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Term
| What are 4 Risk Factors (Precursors) for Assault/Robbery? |
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Definition
- Dealing with a large number of people
- Handling cash money
- Doing a lot of travelling
- Delivering goods or passengers |
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Term
T or F?
Risk of violent victimization in the workplace is lower than the risk of violent victimization during leisure time activities. |
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Definition
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Term
| What percentage of violent crime does the workplace account for? |
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Definition
- Between 14-22% of all violent crime
- Many violent crimes (or transactions) committed by irate or impatient clients/customers
- Other violent crimes committed by irate colleagues, fellow employees or friends and family members of employees |
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Term
| What percentage of burglaries take place while the victim is at work? |
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Definition
| 21% of burglaries take place while victim is at work. In addition, employees may have personal belongings stolen from co-workers while at work. |
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Term
T or F?
Victimization incidents in the workplace are likely to get reported. |
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Definition
| False: Most victimization incidents in the workplace do not get reported as many employers have “in-house” methods for addressing such issues – e.g. private security forces, internal disciplinary procedures, dismissal of troublesome employees |
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Term
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Definition
- Types of occupational crime include white collar crime, corporate crime, employee theft, and embezzlement
- Workplace provides opportunities for both employers and employees to victimize their customers or to victimize each other
- Work domain brings large numbers of people together in time and space on routine (daily) basis, against environmental backcloth that involves financial transactions, and sometimes vast amounts of money |
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Term
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Definition
- Coined by Edwin Sutherland (who came up with Differential Association theory)
- Crimes committed by wealthy, powerful individuals for their own personal benefit |
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Term
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Definition
| Term came later than 'White Collar Crime'. Refers to crimes by corporations or corporate officials for the benefit of the corporation. |
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Term
T or F?
‘Social Learning Theory’ also made use of differential association theory. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are some precursors to white collar and corporate crime? |
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Definition
- Individuals or groups of individuals in positions of trust, power and responsibility
- Often have vast sums of money at their disposal
- Organizational framework may permit them to deflect attention away from themselves (through accountants, lawyers and bankers)
- Easy access to money, by virtue of their “legitimate” occupational duties |
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Term
| How much does white collar/corporate crime cost per year in the US? |
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Definition
| White collar/corporate crime costs about $250 billion a year in the US, twenty times more than cost of all “Street crime” combined |
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Term
T or F?
1994 municipal bankruptcy in Orange County, California resulted in financial losses of $3 billion. |
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Definition
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Term
| Give 4 Examples of White Collar/Corporate Crime. |
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Definition
1) Enron - Chief executives (while drawing $100 million each out of Enron corporation) deliberately misrepresented the profit picture and when the company collapsed, $70 billion in investors’ equity was wiped out.
2) Worldcom - One of the world's largest telecom companies defrauded investors of $1 billion in an accounting scandal. Also involved Arthur Andersen, previously one of the world's largest accounting firms.
3) Eron Mortgage Corp. - In the 1990s, guaranteed thousands of investors in BC a 24% return for investing in their property development projects. - President and Vice President were aware there was little or no cash flow from the projects, but they were paying interest and repaying on older investments by using money from new investors. Investors lost around $200 million, the President was found guilty of 5 criminal charges and sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment.
4) Bre-X - Claimed its goldmine in Indonesia had massive reserves and backed up claims by adding gold to the mineral sample which was assayed. Share prices of Calgary-based Bre-X (which traded on the TSE) went through the roof, and then collapsed when fraud was exposed. Some of main participants sold their shares at an enormous profit and left Canada for the Cayman Islands, but Bre-X investors lost around $3 billon |
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Term
T or F?
Effects of corporate crime are not always apparent. |
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Definition
| True: Ex. If a car dealership rolls back the odometer for sale, the customer might just think they bought a lemon. If someone dies from a faulty pharmaceutical drug, they may think it is just because of the illness itself. Shareholders may think they are losing money because the company is losing money, not because the officials are taking it. |
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Term
T or F?
Some types of corporate crimes – e.g. knowingly manufacturing dangerous products, or failing to abide by safety regulations – may result in more deaths and injuries than all other types of crime combined. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- Involves individuals who take advantage of occupational opportunities in order to commit crime (Ex. Nurses taking medicine, nursing home employees taking from patients, banktellers embezzling small amounts of money)
- Much of it goes unnoticed
- It is estimated that 1/3 of employees have stolen from an employer from time to time
- Estimated that economic losses from employee theft in the US could be as high as $400 billion a year, or forty times more than cost of all “Street crime” combined
- Results in business failure and the associated loss of jobs, negative outcomes may be passed along to other employees (in the form of unemployment), to consumers (in form of higher prices), or to shareholders (in form of investment losses)and may cause large expenditures on crime prevention programs and private security personnel |
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Term
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Definition
- Imply involvement of group of individuals who come together to engage in illegal activities, in search of profit
- Should be relatively large scale operations with a degree of internal organization, that engage in criminal activity on an ongoing basis
- Prepared to defend their “enterprise” or their “profits” through corruption, coercion or even lethal violence |
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Term
| Potential Precursors of Organized Crime |
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Definition
- Goods or services for which there is substantial public demand, and a law prohibiting or restricting access to those goods or services
- Degree of systematic corruption (e.g. politicians or law enforcement officials who are willing to accept bribes or otherwise tolerate the activity)
- Formation of partnerships or associations between individuals or groups of individuals, joining together to pool their resources (e.g. money, connections, networks for distributing illegal goods or services)
- Government itself creates pre-conditions necessary for organized crime to thrive, by outlawing, heavily taxing or restricting access to “in-demand” items |
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Term
| Differential Association Theory |
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Definition
By Edwin Sutherland, member of the Chicago School. 9 propositions:
- Criminal behaviour is learned
- Learned in a process of interaction with others
- Principal part of learning occurs within intimate personal groups
- Learning includes: a) techniques of committing crime, and b) motives, rationalizations, and attitudes
- Learn definitions of legal codes as favorable or unfavorable
- Become delinquent through excess of definitions favorable to criminal activity
- Differential associations may differ in intensity, duration and frequency over time
- Involves same mechanisms as other types of learning
- Needs and values much the same for delinquents and non-delinquents |
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