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| Reason & Process for Planning |
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Definition
Because it is important for public agencies to determine the intensity and geographical arrangements of various land uses in a community
Steps in Planning Process includes 5 interrelated activities:
1. design
2. laws and regulation
3. environmental analysis
4. socioeconomic analysis
5. political approval |
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-it is a public decision-making process
-mostly about what gets the most votes
-it is inevitably subject to political lobbying by interest groups (pluralism)
-land = “an exhaustible resource” – we need to ensure its preservation
-everyone wants something different; environmentalists, developers, investors, homeowners, etc. |
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10 Steps in Rational Model |
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1. determine goals -how you want your city to evolve -identify “problems” – correct what is not working -alleviate problems (don’t try to fix/solve them) 2. determine “stakeholders” 3. identify the alternatives to alleviating/solving problems -coming from a higher person or from you 4. choose criteria by which to asses alternatives -efficiency is about using resources correctly -most vulnerable members of society need someone to look over them -don’t make it too easy on yourself -common criteria: efficiency, equity, effectiveness, serves public interest, affordable, legal, achievable in needed time frame, availability of necessary resources 5. analyze/evaluate the alternatives using criteria -how will you weigh one criteria against another 6. choose best alternative -best = made rational/methodical argument -cost analysis (not really cost-benefit) 7. persuade people -use case studies -is it legal? will it work for my community? 8. implement alternatives -may be your original or another 9. evaluate -expect lots of false starts -can you recognize when something doesn’t work and turn directions -was the problem reduced/alleviated altogether? 10. reiterate
Begin the cycle all over again with a new set of goals |
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| Fulton, p 157: Anything from general plan adoption to permit approval. P 160: In the Friends of Mammoth case the court concluded that the term “project” did indeed include “the issuance of permits, leases, and other entitlements.” Also includes the construction of buildings, facilities, parks, development proposals/development, etc. Generally speaking, any discretionary action involving the physical environment is a project. |
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| - general statement of public goals and principles for guiding action -long-standing policies -evolving “social policies” -new policies not always accepted everywhere -controversial social policies being advocated --idea that law should guide actions, not arbitrary decrees |
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| a normative statement, what something should be. value judgments are based on the researcher's own values. |
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Map that helps user conceptually visualize a geographic area. A transportation engineer might usually associate a city with a cog map of the major freeways/roads, a conservationist might visuaolize a cog map of open spaces/parks, below is an image of a cog map showing fun visitor areas, something a tourist might visualize to mentally "see" their way around a city. [image] |
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-Personal Space – leading env. psychologist Robert Sommer uses the term in 2 ways
1. “the emotionally charge zone around each person, sometimes described as a soap bubble aura, which helps to regulate the spacing of individuals”
2. “the process by which people mark out and personalize the spaces they inhabit.”
-personal spaces are those we consider our own
-Social Space
-consists of public territories that, officially at least, offer equal access to all. Individuals generally feel that they do not control the use of social space, although they have free access to it
-examples include streets, public beaches and parks |
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| Basically any social theory that describes what should be done (morally) rather than what is done in practice. More Info. I could see this being applied to city planning be using it to categorize theories of planning. For instance, principles of planning often hold up lofty ideals of not displacing disadvantaged groups and preserving open space etc. but in practice we see the fiscalization of planning. |
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| (City Lights pg. 57) – a method for doing science based on the assumption that all true knowledge is verifiable using empirical evidence. Well-ordered, successive stages – defining a research problem, constructing hypotheses, data gathering and analysis, and prediction of facts – are outlined |
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| (City Lights pg. 57) – the philosophical stance claiming that all true knowledge can be derived from sense experience (empirically based knowledge). It rejects intuitive insight, subjective understanding, and metaphysical speculation as bases of knowledge |
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| Factors Shaping Location & Development of Cities |
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| City Lights Chapter 4, p 82-98: Technology, social organization, physical environment, agriculture, trade, cultural centers, market settlements, permanent residences, density, heterogeneity, natural resource availability, industry, and population. |
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City Lights p 85-87: In Childe’s view, agriculture is the key factor in the revolutionary change form nomadic wandering to village life. Over the millennia, larger and larger villages developed and these led to the need for more complex social organization and control. Eventually, a whole series of technological innovations and political changes followed as a result of larger populations and the need to handle and ensure the food surplus. He assumes that the urban revolution in Mesopotamia is the product of four inextricably linked factors (POET) [image] |
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| POET (from childe's thesis) |
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Definition
(POET): 1) Population: Increased numbers encouraged by the agricultural surplus. 2) Organization: An increasingly complex division of labor, particularly the evolution of ruling religious and secular elites to organize the surplus and a variety of specialists such as craftspeople, metallurgists, and scribes. 3) Environment: A hospitable physical setting, such as a fertile river valley, capable of producing an agricultural surplus. 4) Technology: Innovations that first brought food cultivation and food surplus and gradually led to such inventions as the wheel and writing.So, the earliest cities arose due to the interaction between these demographic, environmental, social, and technological factors. Cities developed and progressed due to the existence of an agricultural surplus.
Although this theory was once considered conventional wisdom, many now reject the notion that the urban revolution was a prerequisite for the development of ancient cities. |
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| City Lights p 88-89: Jacobs’s trade thesis turns Childe’s thesis on its head. Jane Jacobs imagines the city becoming the independent variable, explaining the development of agriculture—not the reverse. To Jacobs, the first cities arose because of trade (i.e. Catal Huyuk). Location was a key factor; early cities had to be located near the source of prized goods such as salt and obsidian. And they had to be situated along trade routes that bypassed geographical barriers. Jacobs believed that the survival of the first city dwellers, the New Obsidianites, was based on exchanges of vital commodities for food from their trading partners and that agriculture was invented by the city dwellers and diffused through trade. Agriculture developed because of cities. |
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City Lights p 89: Mumford is an urbanist representing the third viewpoint on the origins and development of cities. He says that “early people’s respect for the dead, itself an expression of fascination with their powerful images of daylight fantasy and nightly dream, perhaps had an even greater role than more practical needs in causing them to seek a fixed meeting place and eventually a continuous settlement.” Mumford thought practical needs drew families and tribes together in campsites, but the ultimate reason for the existence of the city was sacred in nature: “The first gem of the city is the ceremonial meeting place which has spiritual or supernatural powers that are endowed with a cosmic image.” Cities came to existence as spiritual and cultural centers for the worship of the dead. |
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City Lights p 89: Kostof, an architectural historian, represents the fourth point of view. This one debunks all the other theories by stating that neither religion, trade, environment, nor the evolution from the agricultural village to city was a key to the origin of cities. Economics and environment, in this view, are not nearly as important as the spirit of people. City creating thus entails an act of will by a leader or collectivity. Recent - late 90's |
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| City Lights p 90: Sociologist Gideon Sjoberg’s central hypothesis is that “in their structure or form, pre-industrial cities—whether in medieval Europe, traditional China, India, or elsewhere—resemble one another closely and in turn differ markedly from modern industrial urban centers.” Sjoberg looks for what he calls structural universals that typify pre-industrial cities and distinguish them from modern industrial cities. All cities that use animate energy sources (humans, animals) instead of inanimate energy sources (steam, electricity) are pre-industrial. This means that cities from Ur to Athens and beyond are classified as pre-industrial. Sjoberg believes that these diverse cities still share other numerous patterns in the realms of ecology, class, and the family, as well as in their economic, political, religious, and educational structures, arrangements that diverge sharply from their counterparts in mature industrial cities. For example, he notes the commonalities of small size (under 100,000 inhabitants), cramped conditions (due to lack of transportation), widespread residential segregation by ethnic and occupational groups, special quarters for particular economic pursuits, and little specialization in land use. Also, these cities have similar class and status structures—they include a small elite and a large lower class. These class/status barriers are nearly impossible to cross, so there is little mobility within social structures. His views are largely attacked for bringing more confusion than clarity to the study of pre-industrial cities. This is due to the fact that he is imprecise and incorrectly treats all cities before the Industrial Revolution as dependent subsystems within larger feudal societies. |
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| City Lights p 97-98: Small and compact by today’s standards. Until the 1850s even the largest US cities could be crossed on foot in about thirty minutes, hence the name walking city. Innovations in transportation increased city size by a minimum of 5-15 miles. The demise of the compact walking city can be traced to a series of innovations in transport technology. What trolleys, bicycles, and later cars did was to expand the limits of the walking city. These forces were put into motion as early as 1829, with the first Omnibus in New York City. By the 1840s bus systems had spread to all major US cities. Soon, the omnibus was followed by horse drawn buses on rails and commuter railroads, further accelerating the sprawl of the city. A city prior to the introduction of transport technology that expanded its outer limits beyond comfortable walking range. Prior to 1850, all American cities were walking cities: the edge of the urbanized area could be reached in a half hour walk. |
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| City Lights p 98: The invention of the electric trolley in 1886 and the telephone in 1876 changed the structure of cities because they greatly increased people’s ability to work in cities and travel to suburban homes, to live on the outskirts of town and communicate to central locations. In his study of three Boston streetcar suburbs, historian Samuel Bass Warner, Jr. notes that the electric trolley pushed Boston’s urban fringe out to 6 miles in the 1880s and 1890s. By 1900 the old walking city had become primarily a region of cheap housing. This produced an urban area characterized by housing segregation, by both ethnicity and class. In addition, the new trolley technology made possible what many builders, large institutions and upper class homeowners wanted: the physical separation of work from residence. First wave of US suburbs resulting from improved transport technology during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. |
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| City Lights p 480-481: Lowell, Massachusetts and Pullman Illinois. Planned manufacturing towns were inspired by profits, paternalism and/or reform in the interest of softening class antagonism. Lowell, Massachusetts, is the most famous example of early planned manufacturing towns. Built by Frances Cabot Lowell in the early nineteenth century, it was the model for dozens of other New England mill towns. Realizing that he would need abundant cheap labor to run his water-powered textile mills, Lowell set out to attract workers, mainly New England farm girls, to his town. Disturbed at the horrific social conditions in English factory towns that he had visited, Lowell set out to improve the worker’s lot. Lowell, Massachusetts was laid out physically to fit the social order Lowell envisioned. Textile mills lined the river, flanked by a canal and between them was housing for America’s first female labor force—boarding houses operated much like convents. A main road linked the manufacturing and housing areas to other urban activities. George M. Pullman, the railroad sleeping car magnate decided to build housing for his workers near his factory on a 4,000 acre site about 12 miles south of Chicago. This factory town was also a strong contrast to the crowded, unsanitary tenement cities. The builders of factory towns hoped not only to improve their workers’ living conditions, but also to soften their antagonism toward their leaders. However, eventually these towns were found to be illegal and Pullman and Lowell were not allowed to rule their towns anymore. Other company towns include Kohler, Wisconsin, Hershey, Pennsylvania, and Gary, Indiana. |
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| City Lights p 480: A famous utopian social experiment led by Robert Owen in Indiana. Owen was a rich industrialist turned utopian entrepreneur who came to the US from Scotland to introduce a new system of society that would remove the reasons for conflict among individuals. He believed (like Charles Fourier) that large cities around industrial areas were unhealthy and the best alternative was a small, self-sufficient community where he could promote a noncompetitive, wholesome way of life based on socialism and education. New Harmony was a square-shaped arrangement that would contain between 800 and 1200 people. Inside the square were public buildings, while families would live on three sides and children over the age of three would live on the fourth side. Outside the square there were to be manufacturing facilities, stables, farm buildings, and agricultural land. Owen’s dreams were never realized at New Harmony, Indiana because he and his followers instead moved into a village abandoned by another utopian sect and eventually internal dissent shattered that settlement. |
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| metropolises of over 7 million people, mostly in poor developing countries and have terrible living conditions. CL 101. Rapidly growing due to rural-to-urban influx and population increase within the city itself. "Every third world city has a first world city in it" and vice-verse. Incredible disparity of wealth within megacities. Ex: Nairobi, Kenya, Lagos, Nigeria, and Mexico City, Mexico. |
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| Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, large population center or nucleus together with adjacent socially and economically integrated communities (mother city with suburbs). CL 152-53. |
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- a few large cities will dominate more small cities (hinterland) leading to a dense network of evenly space trade centers to serve local population. Two measures 1. Hinterland: surrounding area to which city provides goods and services and range. [image] |
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| area from which people travel to purchase services. CL 417 |
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developed by Burgess in 1920s Chicago. City grows in 5 successive zones with Zone 1 being center of business and city life with Zone 5 being bedroom suburbs. CL 424-25. [image] |
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| study of spatial distribution of people and institutions of cities. Started with Park and Burgess in Chicago school, key concepts of competition for place in urban space, residential segregation, invasion, and succession. CL 424. |
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| cities develop many nuclei, centers of activity for four reasons: 1. Certain activities need specialized facilities (i.e. ports). 2. Similar activities tend to cluster (finance on Wall St.). 3. Some unlike industries are not compatible (factory and entertainment). 4. Certain activities can’t compete financially (low vs. high income). |
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| involved with the rise of city planning commissions, city by city. He’s in NYC Zoning (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| into federal public housing: bank loans thru gov facilitate housing in suburbia (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| involved with the rise of city planning commissions, city by city and the Urban General Plan: individual citizens created and kept the plan to be recognized officially 50-60 years later (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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Leader of City Beautiful movement. Involved w/Chicago Plan, The White City. Columbian Exposition in 1893. It was in the Chicago Plan that the expertise and ideas of planner extraordinaire Daniel Burnham came together with the interests of Chicago’s business leaders. Labeling his idea “City Beautiful,” Burnham persuaded the influential Chicago Commercial Club to back the Chicago Plan of 1909: a giant, even superhuman-scale, city plan. Burnham’s idea was to create romantic parks and lovely waterfront landscapes by Lake Michigan with huge plazas and broad thoroughfares. This was to serve as a contrast to city life. Burnham thought the city was a place to escape from. Chicago became a proving ground for Burnham’s City Beautiful concept (the White City): that cities could be improved physically without any restructuring of economic, social, or political institutions. Most of the improvements that Burnham counseled, aside from the glorious parks for people wishing to flee the city, were meant to spur commerce and industry. [image] |
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| Emergence of U.S. City Planning Institutions; his New Town Model in England (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| wrote The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961): planners should protect neighborhoods, mix land uses, and pay attention to design detail. The Economy of Cities (1970): agriculture developed because of cities, not vice versa (his thesis is the reverse of Childe’s); describes New Obsidian, the 1st city. |
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| coined the term “landscape architecture” in 1858. Developer of Central Park in 19th c. Inspired a park and boulevard movement in the late 19th c. Provided ideology for shaping the industrial city. |
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| 1st president of American Planning Association, a city planner. New Town and link to suburbia. |
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| involved in colonial town planning in the U.S.; a great architect in the New World Wilderness; of Washington D.C. Planning in the Young U.S. Republic; the Northwest Ordinance (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| key figure in urban design; “imageable” cities. Wrote The Image of the City (1960). Claimed that main sources of "image" are nodes, landmarks, and routes. |
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| shaped the physical structure of NYC and social policies. Most powerful man in NY and influence on American cities in the 20th c. created new politics: bureaucratic power instead of ward-level politics. city builder during the federally led redevelopment and rescue of downtowns/cities (1945-80) |
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| Planning in the industrial world: top-down planning and decisions: the Great Architect Tradition. Involved in Colonial town planning in the U.S.; a great architect in the New World Wilderness; of Williamsburg, Annapolis (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning). Lecture 2/2/09: Former British military officer and architect who designed Williamsburg and Annapolis in the baroque, grand palatial style. Served as governor of several of the colonies. |
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| Leading urban designers of the 20th century who embodied the emerging design principles of his time that shape suburbs, resort towns, factory towns, on a more human, village-like scale. Ex: his 1909 design of San Diego. Places strong emphasis on public buildings and public spaces. Contemporary with "garden city" movement to create a "sense of place" oriented around green spaces. pp. 46-47 CA Planning (Early 1900's) |
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| involved in Colonial town planning in the U.S.; the Philadelphia model heads west with him. Planning in the Young U.S. Republic; Northwest Ordinance (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning). Lecture 2/2/09: Quaker political leader who designed Philadelphia around the basic grid method. This method translated to the rest of large American cities especially New York and Baltimore. He created a handbook on how to lay out a town than settlers carried with them while moving west. In 1787 the Northwest Ordinance mandated that as land is settled William Penn’s grid pattern must be followed throughout the Northwest Territory. |
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| Jacob Riis-Fulton p 50: In 1900, New York was the center of the nation in almost every way. The result was a huge disparity between rich and poor, and a dramatic set of urban conditions. Documented Crowded and unsanitary conditions in How the Other Half Lives, outcry to improve tenement housing. City lights p 7, 208, 210: Word pictures and photographic images often transmit acquaintance with an urban scene: a sense of being there, and immediate emotional reaction. Photos allow us to witness the life of poverty in New York City around 1890. |
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| City lights p 375, 376, 431: Muckraking journalist Lincoln Steffens once asked a New York city boss, “Why must there be a boss, when we’ve got a Mayor and a council...” The boss broke in, “That’s why. It’s because there’s a mayor and a council and judges and a hundred other men to deal with.” There were muckraking journalists too, like Lincoln Steffens, who exposed The Shame of the Cities. They sought to control urban crime, graft, vice, and political corruption. To Steffens, local business meddled with the self-regulating market because in a country where business is dominant, business men must and will corrupt a government which can pass laws to hinder or help business. |
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Leader of the Garden City design movement. Sought to create new towns on the metropolis fringe that maintained a village atmosphere, incorporated farmland & natural areas into their designs yet accommodated the automobile ( though separate from pedestrian traffic). Adopted concept of "neighborhood units". pp. 47 CA Plan (early 1900's) [image] Image: each green-shaded block is a walkable unit that cars can't drive in. |
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| 1893 Columbian (Chicago) Exposition |
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| shows off latest technology/food. Daniel Burnham, the White City and the Chicago Plan: creates public meeting places. Other cities mimic the Chicago Plan using consultants. Chicago becomes the model city (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| movement started in Chicago after the quarter centenary Columbian Exposition in 1893/4 where civic beautification took hold. F.L. Olmsted Sr. and Burnham designed the White City. |
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| movement from 1920-60 that encompasses the industrial rationalization and modernizing politics of the 20s and the Model General Planning Enabling Ordinance (1928): state adoption of local rights to self-governance/planning thru Midwest and West 1920s-30s (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| distressed area designated by federal or state gov where regulatory and tax burdens are loosened to stimulate private investment (Fulton 410) |
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| the national legal OK on land regulation (1926): city’s constitutional right to regulate public property (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| sought to create new towns on the metropolitan fringe that maintained a village atmosphere, yet accommodated the auto and incorporated farmland and natural areas into the design (Fulton |
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| Kevin Lynch’s term describing the degree to which a city is visually legible or evokes a strong image in any observer’s mind (City Lights 485) |
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| "maximum feasible participation of the poor" in community action programs. Poor people participating in the planning and execution of community action programs. [pg 403 city lights] |
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| (Chicago) from the Exposition (1893) |
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| massive spending, programs, growth of gov; federal public housing; New Towns (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| rise of Federal Gov Activism, Depression and WW2 (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| self-contained communities including housing, jobs, and shopping areas located in a newly developing area. Used to denote a master-planned community (Fulton 412) |
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| Planning in the Young U.S. Republic; Penn, L’Enfant (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| (Not In My BackYard) residents and homeowners who oppose new development simply because it would be located nearby |
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| locally undesired land use |
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| Post WWII Factors Spawning Suburban Growth |
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| role of federal highways and mortgage guarantees; White flight with massive internal migration (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| (Poverty War and Great Society 1960-80); fed gov pushes slum removal in 1940s-80s; model cities; fed funded urban social programs; court, fed led civil rights reform (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| encompasses the Chicago Exposition of 1893 (Lec: The Emergence of City Planning) |
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| Property Rights Movement- late 1970s |
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| Standard State & City Planning Act - SPEA guide pg 51; 1922 city planning enabling, origin of cali general plan process |
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| Standard State & City Enabling Act |
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| 1928 zoning enabling, after Euclid v Ambler, origin of Euclidean zoning, allowed police powers as enforcement mechanism |
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| federal program for the physical improvement of urban areas (Fulton 414) |
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A uniquely American institution of city politicians and their machines.
Started in the late 1800s and lasted until the Progressive era of reformers around 1917.
Last old-style machine to fall was Richard Daley and Chicago's political machine in the 1970's.
With a network of ward captains and city administrators, machines controlled the city by
1. Gaining control of patronage jobs
2. Deciding who got government contracts
3. Giving insiders a chance to speculate in real estate by giving out tips
4. Granted special favors
5. Got kickbacks from recipients of city contracts
6. Sometimes got pocket money from blackmail |
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Term
| Why political machines fell |
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Definition
Why they fell
1. Scope of government increased
2. Competing institutions such as labor unions
3. Business interests developed there own way to push their interests without the machines |
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Definition
New York City Politician Machine Ring Leader for 1866-71.
Symbol of corrupt politics.
From chair maker to alderman to Congressman to New York State Senator
Commissioner of Public Works in New York in 1870.
Tammany Hall, New York's Democratic party machine.
Criminally and civilly indicted for fraud.
Jailed, suits in excess of 6 million when he died. |
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Definition
Chicago's mayor (1955-76)
Boss of the Cook county Democratic political machine in Chicago.
Last of the old style political machines
2nd generation Irish American, stayed in hometown or kept working class accent, self-made.
Master of ethnic politics. |
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Definition
Precinct: The basic unit of the political party organization. Cities and counties are divided into precinct polling districts, of 200 – 1,000 folks.
Ward: political division of a city for electing members to the city council or board of supervisors. Each ward elects one representative.
Captains acted as direct links between the constituency and the party machine
Helped with voter registration, collection of absentee ballots |
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Type of charter
Precise definition of city powers is left up to the voters within limits set by state constitution
Granted more power over local decisions, they are not dictated by the state.
75% of large cities operate this way |
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| SES is a composite measure based on income, education, and occupation that combines class and status to determine a person’s or group’s place on the social ladder. |
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Council of Governments
Association of cities and counties
Often serves as a regional planning agency, with some power under state and federal law.
Formed in 60s when state and federal officials thought they would be a good idea.
Now mainly as information sources and think tanks for regional problems.
Examples; SCAG, SANDAG, ABAG
Some COGs serve as Metropolitan Planning Organizations and often as transportation agencies |
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Definition
John F. Dillion, Iowa Supreme Court Judge, Clinton v Cedar Rapids
Published treatise on public law
State preeminence over local rule 1868
Means that laws not specifically granted to municipalities are retained by the state |
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Incorporation: Creation of another local government,
Results in local fragmentation
Contracting of services to local cities
Process by which an area of an existing city or county becomes its own independent city |
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| Only traditional response to people's need for urban services that doesn't lead to another local government, results in political integration, requires boundary changes, not feasible in MSAs where most of land is incorporated into municipalities. Note: Usually Incorporation would precede Annexation |
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Definition
Mayor-council w/mayoral powers over city charter
4 yr term with re-election
Appointment and removal of administrative heads
Power over budget
State/general/city charter does not limit governing functions
City performs many important local government functions
Effective political organization “well-oiled machine”
Strong support from local interests; unions, etc |
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Definition
(attractive for pluralistic societies) Council-manager or commission
Mayor-council w/charter limits on mayoral role
Short term (2yrs)
little or no power over budget
State/general/city charter limits governing functions
Other layers of government, ie: county/districts play many local government functions
Weak to non-existent political organization
Lack of support from local interests |
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Definition
Response to fragmented local governments.
Conservatives argue that regional government is bad because it is less responsive to local needs. Political scientist Weiher(1991):Regional governments are more democratic because they're less likely to divide people into social groups as local governments do.
Usually regional governments are not broad based, but rather serve functions such as transportation. Traditional adaptations to regional government have been seen when the urban fringe participates in regional activities such as:
Incorporation:
Contracting out services:
Annexation:
Forming special districts: school, garbage, "mosquito abatement" etc. |
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| General Law vs. Charter Cities |
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Definition
Charter Cities: organized under a charter adopted by a majority vote
According to the provisions of state law.
Charter operates the city's constitution
Charter cities have more discretion as to land use policies.
Often larger cities and smaller, older cities are charter cities.
Often larger cities and smaller, older cities are charter cities.
Gen Law cities follow the general laws of the state in all situations. |
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Good Government Movement : college educated professionals such as Jane Addams
Professionals(upper-classWASPs)should serve run government to prevent machine corruption Ethnic minorities/immigrants/lower class who lost much of their political voice. |
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Definition
Plan making: Process of devising plans for communities-general, specific, district, and other policy documents intended to guide the future development of a community.
Plan Implementation: Zoning, Classic regulatory system as a government mechanism designed to restrain business in order to achieve a public good that the private markets apparently can't provide. |
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5 to 7 members appointed by the city council(except LA and SF appointed by mayor)
One of few local bodies that can make legally binding decisions |
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New since the reform of goo-goos and fall of the old-style political machines
Reformers advocated professional education of planners in an attempt to make government less corrupt and more business-like. Also professional planning was seen as a way to increase efficiency |
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Elitists: 1950s power lies in the hands of a few elite. Floyd Hunter, land use
Pluralists: power is distributed by across a broad based of groups such as labor/trade unions etc.
Dahl, Who Governs New Haven 1961 |
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Private group that tries to influence public officials to vote according to the group's interests
aka Special Interests |
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| Initiative/Referendum/ Recall |
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Initiative: Proposed legislative or constitutional changes placed on the ballot by citizen petition, Approved or rejected by popular vote;
Allows citizen to enact their own laws independent of state or local legislative bodies
Referendum: Process by which citizens vote, approving or disapproving a decision made by gov
Recall: A provision permitting removal of elected officials before expiration of their term limit. Introduced to make politicians more accountable to voters |
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| Representative vs. Participatory Democracy |
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Representative: participate as a member of a group,
Elected officials
Government of politicians
Political machines derive from this style of democracy
Participatory: individuals participate in creation of legislation
direct democracy
town-hall style |
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Having too many differing decision points that it is difficult to find consensus
Too many groups with veto power
Paralyzes public policy-making at a leadership
Results in non-decisions, power passes to bureaucrat, Max Weber, bureaucratic phenomenon |
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| Bureaucratic phenomenon.. Hyperpluralism |
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| Hunter’s Reputational Analysis |
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Elitist Model by Floyd Hunter
Utilized reputational analysis, asked who's incharge “who's in charge?” in Atlanta.
Found in Atlanta that most of the power was in the hands of those who made land use decisions. |
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Pluralist Model byRobert Dahl Yale political Scientist, wrote Who Governs? 1961
Decision (issue or event) analysis. The focus is on the actual decision
Found in New Haven pluralist politics(power shared among local elites from each area)
Utilized interviews from participants
Those w/ greatest proportion of success in pubic policy decision making were most influential |
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Sociologists Harvey Molotch and John Logan published this growth model in 1976
Based on critical analysis of other people's case studies.
“The desire for growth creates consensus among a wide range of elites no matter how they maybe split on other issues.”
Rejects pure economic logic and natural geographic factors as key shapers of cities.
Instead: activism of entrepreneurs competing for growth-stimuli. |
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| Yerba Buena Case/TOOR/3 Lefts |
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TOOR: tennants and owners in opposition of redevelopment.
Three lefts: environmentalism, liberalism, and populism (grass-roots community)came together to fight large scale development zone in transition in San Francisco in the mid 60s. Developers wanted to demolish the community and build a new one.
Homeowners eventually struck a deal with the developers, to the dismay of other groups involved |
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Berkeley child care advocates
Political Lesson 1: The (democratic) city machine lives on even in the most reformed governments ie Ronald Dellum's machine
Political Lesson 2: In local government there is usually more than one coalition
Political Lesson 3: Ethnicity and race are important factors in city politics.
Political Lesson 4: Never underestimate the power of good will and mutual aid. Bananas had the support of the network of people it served.
Political Lesson 5: Adaptability increases the chances of survival in changing times. |
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Terms describing process of social change in cities within framework that sees successive social groups competing for and succeeding one another in a given physical area. Invasion can be displacement of old group by new or almagamation of old and new.
Urban Ecology theory derived from Darwin |
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Begins with the ghettoization of the poor,
Housing prices increase in more affluent suburbs,
Middle-income workers move into older, distressed areas because of more affordable housing.
Displacement of first communities |
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During industrial Revolution: usually low-paid, low job-security, piece-work basis
Trade Union movement brought contingent workers together during progressive movement |
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[image]AKA age-sex or age structure digram How many people of each age live in an area. “developed” countries tend to have a constrictive pyramid bulging in middle/top “developing” have expanding bulging near bottom. |
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| 1968 Social order of Poverty and Slums. Rooted in personalism and provincialism |
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Manuel Castells and John Mollenkopf
There are two cities, a rich and a poor, formal/informal.
This ideas comes back to Plato |
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| demanded services for the city may vs. the needed services for the city. The demanded services may not be the services that would address the greater public but may be demanded from a certain group, region, class, party etc. |
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| property, income, sales, hotel occupancy, business license, property transfer, severance… |
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| rate: a rate on the assessed value of all real property or earnings that goes to a higher authority whether it be local, state or federal agencies that use the tax to fund services, programs, etc. base: valuable real property (land and structures both residential and commercial) subject to city’s taxes. elasticity: the “stretchability” of a tax. When the economy is growing the tax goes up when the economy is receding the tax goes down, expressed as a coefficient by dividing a percentage change in tax revenue by a percentage change in income. |
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| Capital improvements budget |
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Definition
| pertain to capital improvement programs (CIPs). Budgeting for CIP requires a lot of long term visions in order to prevent abrupt tax increases that might otherwise be required to fund them. The local government has to constantly review current and potential capital needs, capital improvements etc. so as to protect the government as well in case there were ever need for unplanned capital expenditure. |
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| reduced local property taxes by two-thirds and made it really hard for local governments to raise those taxes in order to pay debt service. (pg. 61 Fulton). Prop 13 was the beginning of intense competition among cities and counties for sales tax-producing development. This was good for retail stores because there was more incentive to develop more shopping complexes because of the potential gain in tax revenue. |
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| the fund in which tax revenues are pooled and the state bases its budget on. The fund is discretionary and called be altered every year. Some things the general fund is used to fund are state expenditures such as education, highways, public welfare, healthcare, police and fire departments, and interest on the general debt. |
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| Special and Enterprise Funds |
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| No discretion, the revenues allocated must go towards the specific task. Can be about the same size, or even larger than the general fund. |
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| entitlements that apply to broad categories or services. |
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| everything else that can be happening instead; this includes time, investment, etc. |
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| nothing is free, everything has an opportunity cost. |
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| funds that can be used to finance nearly any local government’s program |
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| non-property taxes adopted at the discretion of local governments. The most common – general sales taxes, selective sales or excise taxes, and income or earning taxes |
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| Taxes collected by state and remitted to local governments. |
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| General Obligations v. revenue bonds |
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| general obligations bonds are paid out of the jurisdiction’s general fund which is funded by sales and property tax revenue, needs a 2/3rds voter approval. Unlike general obligation bonds, only the revenues specified in the legal contract between the bond holder and bond issuer are required to be used for repayment of the principal and interest of the bonds |
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| Intergovernmental Transfers |
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| Revenue raised by another level of government (state or federal) and returned to local governments. |
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| They are direct charges paid by the users of publicly provided services. Examples include bridge tolls, admission fees to the zoo, and metered parking. Virtually all local governments have some user charges. Local governments have increased their user charges since 1970's. With user charges the poor can be barred from going to the zoo or attending activities intended to be public. |
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| - A student earning $5000 and an entrepreneur earning $500000 each pay the same amount of sales tax on a book or boots. For the student, the tax represents a much greater proportion of his or her income than it does for the entrepreneur. Indeed, available data point to the conclusion that lower-income people pay the heaviest sales taxes proportionate to their income. A sales tax, excise tax, and user charges are all forms of regressive taxes. |
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| Refers to such places: older, economically declining industrial cities characterized by acute levels of federal and state revenue transfer, significant poverty-stricken populations in ill health, higher than average crime rates, and eroding tax bases. |
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| O’Connor’s Fiscal Crisis Theory |
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| 1973 Radical political economist James O'Connor has constructed a provocative theory that attempts to explain why capitalist countries like the United States are likely to be caught in a financial squeeze. In The Fiscal Crisis of the State O'Connor argues that the United States has moved into a new economic phase: advanced monopoly capitalism. He claims that in this phase of late capitalism, the state socializes more and more capital costs among its citizens but allows the social surplus (including profits) to be privately appropriated. This "socialization of costs and the private appropriation of profits" O'Connor argues, "creates a fiscal crisis or structural gap between state expenditures and state revenues. |
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Reaction by the California supreme Court to the disparities between tax bases in central cities and their suburbs (ex: within MSAs, funds spent on education differ widely from community to community). The decision held that the property tax system of financing public education violated the equal protection guarantees of the state constitution. The court stated that the amount of money available for a child's education should not depend on the amount of taxable real property located in his or her community. The court ordered the state legislature to devise a new system of financing public education. Since that decision, a number of state courts have found that school spending should not be based on local property tax. 25 states have faced lawsuits in order to make school spending more fair. [image] |
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| Family Tree of Development Planning |
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Definition
depicts the plan’s origins and evolution
-roots, trunk, and branches: origins and evolution of the development plan
-roots = sources of ideas
-trunk = mainstream evolution of the general plan since mid-century
-branches = indicate principal alternative types of plans that have evolved over the past 35 years, drawing both from the general plan and from roots outside the traditional plan
-canopy = illustrates the merging of many of those approaches into the hybrid plans common today |
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| Kent/Chapin General Plans |
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Definition
Kent’s book became the standard text in the 1950’s complemented by a book by Stuart Chapin which went into depth about the kinds of land use analysis appropriate prior to a Plan. (Green Book refers to the Standard Plan as the Kent/Chapin General Plan
-Prior to Kent, GP’s were done by technical specialists overseen by the Commission. Plans were seen as technical documents – Chapin’s view is consistent with this
-Kent was Plans instead as something to be created by elected City Councils with broad public debate. Not interested in the technical analysis so much as forging a public consensus on future direction (western states approach). Kent saw Planning Commissions as just political arms of a City Council, not as “the best and the brightest” of the city – the way historically they had been viewed. |
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-provides a long range vision of future urban form as a purposeful pattern of retail office, industrial, residential, and open space areas within a system of transportation and community facilities
-more likely to plan for ecosystems, agriculture and forestry in its open space categories
-more likely to promote mixed-use development patterns, including village centers, walkable residential communities, and transit-oriented development
-often supplemented by a development strategy map outlining the location of public investments, places to which proposed regulation concepts will be applied, and areas that require actions to solve particular problems |
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| Land Classification Plans |
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-derives from the environmental movement and from land suitability analysis
-spatially specific and map oriented
-intended less to structure the pattern of human activities within urban space than to designate nondevelopment areas in environmentally vulnerable locations and development areas in locations more suited to urban expansion →silhouette of the desired future urban form
-the plan specifies implementation policies to promote the appropriate type, timing, and density of allowable development, including policies for infrastructure expansion and development incentives and disincentives for areas where development is to be encouraged (aka urban, transition, or development districts). Implementation policies where development is discouraged (aka open space, rural, conservation, or critical environmental districts) promote appropriate agricultural, forestry, and ecological uses and discourage urban development
-one increasingly used land classification tool is the urban growth boundary (UGB), which is drawn to accommodate projected population growth over a 10 to 20 yr. period |
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-sometimes called a policy framework plan
-consists of written statements of goals and policy
-more flexible and more easily prepared than other types of plans
-called verbal policy plan because it includes neither land use maps nor implementation strategies
-identifies current and emerging problems and opportunities, lists goals and issues to be addressed, and recommends general principles of action |
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| Development Management Plan |
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-originated with the growth management movement and with the Model Land Development Code of the American Law Institute
-describes a specific course of action, not just a general policy, and its coordinated program of actions for specific local government agencies is supported by analyses, goals, and policies
-generally covers a 3 to 10 yr. period and typically includes the following
-analysis of current and emerging conditions
-statement of goals and/or legislative intent
-action program
-development code
-program for building infrastructure and community facilities and for expanding service areas
-land acquisition program
-other implementation tools like preferential taxation, neighborhood revitalization, and historic preservation programs
-official maps |
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| Development Planning Principles |
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-plan making
-plan content
-managing the development planning game |
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| APA’s (American Planning Ass.)“Model Local Plan” |
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(American Planning Ass.)“Model Local Plan” (Green Book pg. 151)
-issues and opportunities element
-to provide direction for the other elements of the plan, articulate the values of the stakeholders, identify the major trends and forces affecting the local government and their impacts, describe a vision or visions, and list a series of organizing principles and priorities to implement the vision
-would also describe the major opportunities and advantages for growth and development currently underused or not yet used by the local government, identify the major problems currently or potentially facing the local government in the near future, and summarize public participation procedures adopted by the local government
-land use element
-would express the vision statement in physical terms and serve as the linchpin of the comprehensive plan
-would articulate a design for the location and characteristics of future land uses over a 20 yr. planning period, including any proposed urban growth area boundaries and any areas of critical state concern
-would include a system for monitoring land supply
-transportation element
-community facilities element
-housing element
-program for the implementation of the plan
-would cover a period of up to 20 years and would include other procedures to monitor the implementation of the plan |
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| Subdivision Regulation/Review |
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-enables planners to coordinate otherwise unrelated plans of a great many individual developers
-the regulations ensure that provision is made for important elements, such as school and park sites, major water and sewer lines, and rights-of-way for major thoroughfares
-enable planners to influence the internal design of new subdivisions to ensure that the pattern of streets, lots, and related public facilities will be safe, pleasant, and economical to maintain
-may exempt certain types of subdivision from detailed review (ex. neither public improvements nor land dedication is required and/or when only 2 or 3 lots are created)
-in a number of states, a proposed subdivision must be disapproved if it does not comply with the official map. |
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