Term
|
Definition
-Crocodiles, birds, and mammals
-Two distinct blood circuits
-Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separates into 2 distinct circuits
-Systemic circulation-to the body
-Pulmonary circulation-to the lungs
-2 atria and 2 ventricles
-Major advantage-high pressure circulation to two different systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Annelids, fish, and cephalopods
-Single blood circuit
-Single atrium collects blood from tissues
-Single ventricle pumps blood out of the heart
-Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the gills
-Blood picks up oxygen, drops off CO2, and goes on thru the arteries to other body tissues
-Delivers oxygen and nutrients pick up CO2 and waste products
-Deoxygenated blood is returned by veins to the heart |
|
|
Term
| Closed circulatory systems |
|
Definition
-Blood and interstitial fluid are physically separated, only certain components exchanged between the two
-Allows larger, more active animals higher to more efficiently pump blood to all body cells under high pressure
-Found in annelids, cephalopods, and all vertebrates
-Blood remains within vessels-small solutes and water can move between vessels and interstitial fluid
-One or more contractile, muscular hearts
-Often, blood proteins that bind to oxygen and carbon dioxide, increasing carrying capacity
-May contain disease-fighting cells
-Flow can be adjusted to match local metabolic demands
-Capacity to heal vessels when broken |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Found in arthropods and some mollusks
-Vessels connected to hearts open into animal's body cavity
-Fluid in vessels and interstitial fluid and are the same
-Nutrients and metabolic waste exchanged by diffusion-between hemolymph and body cells
-In insects, no oxygen-carrying pigments
-Trachael system is used for gas exchange
-Limitation-hemolymph cannot be selectively directed to different tissues/areas of the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Transport fluid (blood or hemolymph)
-Blood vessels
-One or more pumps (hearts) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Body cavity with a single opening to the outside
-Cnidarians
-All of the animal's body cells are located near cavity or slender extensions from it
-muscular efforts of the body wall cause movement of fluid, increasing efficiency of exchange |
|
|
Term
| Two Basic Types of Transport/Exchange Systems |
|
Definition
1. Gastrovascular cavities
2. Circulatory Systems
-Open
-Closed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Some organisms are small enough that dissolved substances are able to diffuse in or out of their bodies-No transport system needed for efficient exchange
-Primary function of circulatory system is to transport necessary materials (oxygen, nutrients) to all the cells and to transport waste products away from the cells where they can be released into the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Incoming stimuli (chemical or physical stimuli from an animal's body or the external environment) are converted into neural signals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Conscious awareness of sensations
-Not all sensations are consciously perceived by an organism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Recognizes stimulus and initiates signal transduction by creating graded potentials in the same or adjacent cells
-Either neurons or specialized epithelial cells
-When the response is strong enough an action potential is sent to CNS |
|
|
Term
| Intestine of Sensory Stimuli |
|
Definition
-Amount of cell membrane depolarization directly related to intensity of stimulus (graded potential)
-membrane potential=receptor potential
-when a stimulus is strong enough, it will depolarize the membrane to threshold potential and produce an action potential in a sensory neuron
-strength of stimulus is indicated by frequency of action potentials generated
-brain interprets higher frequency of action potentials as a more intense stimulus
-different stimuli produce different sensations because they activate neural pathways |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Transduce Mechanical Energy |
|
|
Term
| Electromagnetic Receptors |
|
Definition
-Detect radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum
-Photoreceptors-respond to visible light energy
-Thermoreceptors-respond to cold and heat
-Infrared, ultraviolet receptors, and magnetic fields |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Respond to specific chemicals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Receptors on skin
-Pain receptors
-Respond to extremes of heat, cold, and pressure as well as to certain molecules such as acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Physically touching or deforming a mechanoreceptor cell opens ion channels in the plasma membrane
-Some mechanoreceptors are neurons
-Others are specialized epithelial cells
-Stretch receptors
-Hair cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Stretching alters proteins in cell membrane, causing ion channels to open, and causing membrane to depolarize
-Action potentials initiated, sent to CNS
-Ex. stretching of stomach wall causing a sens of fullness
-Ex. stretching in blood vessels provides blood pressure information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Specialized epithelial cells
-cilia is at the appex of cell
-Deformable cilia resemble hairs
-Ion channels open or close when cilia bend which changes membrane potential
-frequency is influenced by the direction of bending |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Meissner's corpuscles
-Sense touch and light pressure
-Lie just beneath skin surface
-Pacinian Corpuscles
-Located much deeper beneath the surface
-Respond to deep pressure and vibration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Have eyespots on the tips of their arms
-Eyespots allow for detection of light and direction of light |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Found in vertebrates, some mollusks, and in some snails and annelids
-Light transmitted thru pupils to retina and back of eye
-Photoreceptors trigger electrical changes in neurons
-Sclera
-Cornea
-Pupil
-Iris
-Light is transmitted through a lens in eye, lens focuses on light that is admitted through pupil to retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Sensitive to low intensity light
-Do not discriminate colors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Require more light for stimulation
-Detect color
-Fewer cones than rods in human retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Vitamin A derivative that absorbs light energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Humans have 3 (R,G,B) distinct photopsins, some species have less
-Birds have 5 |
|
|
Term
| Photons alter visual pigments |
|
Definition
-Photoreceptors differ from other sensory receptor cells because their membrane potential is in a slightly depolarized state when the cell is at rest
-Depolarization in unstimulated sate results in continuous release of glutamate
-When exposed to light, retinal is altered
-Opsin changes shape, intracellular signal is transmitted resulting in membrane potential becoming hyperpolarized-more negative
-Hyperpolarization is proportional to intensity of light |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Compound eyes of arthropods (and some annelids) |
|
Definition
-Many light detectors called ommatidia
-Each light detection unit makes up one facet
-Lens and crystalline cone focus light onto rhabdom
-Rhabdom-transport tube
-Pigment cells surround rhabdom and retinula cells, keep light from one ommatidium from leaking to adjacent ommatidia
-Retinula cells surrounding rhabdom gene as photoreceptors
-Extremely sensitive to movement, but less resolving power than single-lens eye |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Simple visual organ
-Eye cup containing endings of photoreceptor cells detect presence or absence of light
-Layer of pigment casts shadows, so planarian can detect direction of light
-Does not form visual images |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Fundamental unit of electromagnetic radiation with the properties of both a particle and a wave
-Examples: planaria, compound eyes of arthropods, echinoderms, single-lens eyes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Photoreceptors detect photons of light arriving from the sun or other light source, or reflecting off an object |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Detection of radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum including those wave lengths that correspond to visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared light, as well as electrical and magnetic stimuli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Structure or structures that serve one or more functions related to support, protection, or locomotion
-Types:
1. Hydrostatic
2. Exoskeleton
3. Endoskeleton |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Water-filled cavity surrounded by muscle
-Water is nearly incompressible, so hydrostatic pressure can be used to extend parts of the body
-Cnidarians-body, tentacles can elongate or shorten
-Echinoderms-movement of tube feet
-Earthworms-move forward by passing a wave of muscular contractions along the length of body
-Circular-squeeze and elongate
-Longitudinal-shorten and widen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-External skeleton surrounding and protecting body
-Vary in complexity, thickness, and durability
-Arthropods-made of chitin, segmented for movements, must be shed to grow
-Interior muscles connected to exoskeletal components for movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Internal structures
-Do not protect body surface, only internal organs and other structures
-Songes (spicules), echinoderms (ossicles), and vertebrates
-Vertebrate Skeleton
-2 pairs
-Axial-main longitudinal axis (skull, spinal column,
ribs)
-Appendicular-Limb bones and girdles
-Joint-formed where 2 or more bones come together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Pivot Joints
-Rotational movement-Neck
2. Hinge Joints
-Movement in one plane-Elbow
3. Ball-and-socket joint
-Movement in several planes-shoulder |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Muscle is a grouping of contractile cells (muscle fibers) bound together by connective tissue
-Tendons link bones to skeletal muscle
-Muscles, bones, and joints arranged in level muscles
-Lever system amplifies the velocity of muscle
shortening
-Short, relatively slow movements of a muscle
produce faster movements of the hand |
|
|
Term
| Skeletal Muscle Tissue Organization |
|
Definition
-Skeletal muscle cells (muscle fibers) contain many parallel-arranged long protein fibers (myofibris) along length
-each myofibril composed of a series of sacromere units
-Contractile
-Composed of interdigitated protein fibers
-Muscle cells are packaged in parallel into muscle
bundles
-A group of muscle bundles=muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Skeletal muscle is a type of striated muscle
-Striated muscle named for striped microscopic pattern of myofibrils
-Striated pattern reveals functional structure of contractile filaments in sarcomeres
-Sarcomeres are composed of interdigitating thick and thin filaments
-Thick filaments made primarily of myosin
-Thin filaments contain actin, troponin, & trapmyosin |
|
|
Term
| Excitation-Contraction Coupling |
|
Definition
1. Action potentials transmitted in muscle membrane trigger a rise in cytosolic Ca+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
-Transverse or T-tubules are invaginations (fold inward) of plasma membrane that conducts the action potential from outer surface to inner regions
2. Triggers contraction
3. Ion pumps will return calcium to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing muscle to relax again |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Olfaction
-Gustation
-Chemicals bind to chemoreceptor cells, initiating signals that cause release of neurotransmitters from the chemoreceptor cells
-Neurotransmitters initiate electrical responses in neurons that extent into axons in the brain |
|
|
Term
| Examples of Chemoreception |
|
Definition
1. Olfaction of mammals
-Olfactory sensitivity on mammals is highly variable depends on density of olfactory receptor cells
-5 million in humans/220 million in dogs
-Olfactory receptors have long cilia with specific receptors to bid odor molecules
-only one type of odor receptor expressed per olfactory receptor cells
-Binding of chemical ligand results in action potentials being sent to olfactory bulb at base of brain
-Overall smell sensation depends on which set of olfactory receptor cells are activated |
|
|
Term
| Equilibrium or Propioception |
|
Definition
-Ability to sense the position, orientation, and movement of the body
-Many aquatic invertebrates have statocysts to send positional information
-Small round chambers
-Vestibular system in vertebrates |
|
|
Term
| Vestibular System in Vertebrates |
|
Definition
-Located in inner eat next to cochiea
-Utricle and saccule detect linear movements of head
-When head moves inertia causes carbonate otoliths (which are embedded in a gelanitous substance) to lag behind and bend cilia changing the membrane potential
-Semi-circular canals detect motion in 3 dimensions
-Hair cells embedded in gelatinous substance
-When head moves, fluid in the canal shifts in the opposite direction pushing on cupula and bending of hair cells
-Each canal oriented in one of 3 planes |
|
|
Term
| Movement of Sound Waves Through the Ear |
|
Definition
1. Sound waves enter the outer ear
2. Tympanic membrane vibrates backa and forth
3. Ossicles transfer vibration to oval windows
4. Sends pressure waves through cochlea
5.Waves travel from vestibular canal to tympanic canal and dissipate against round window
6. Higher frequency sounds we hear pass through basiliar membrane making it vibrate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Pinna and auditory canal
-Separated from middle ear by eardrum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) connect eardrum to oval window |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cochlea (audition) and vestibular system (equilibrium, balance, and proprioception)
-Eustachian tube-connects to pharynx, equalizes pressure between middle ear and atmosphere pressure-helps relieve pressure in ears |
|
|
Term
| Transduction of Sounds Waves in the Organ of Corti |
|
Definition
-Mechanical forces transduced into electrical signals by organ of corti
-Hairs bending in one direction triggers neurotransmitter release
-Action potentials triggered in dendrites of neurons of the auditory nerve
-Frequency of action potentials determined by up and down vibration of basilar membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Number of complete waves in a second (H2) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-3 main compartments:
1. Outer ear
2. Middle ear
3. Inner ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Hearing
-Ability to detect and interpret sound waves
-Wavelength
-Frequency
-Shorter wavelengths have high frequencies perceived as high pitch or tone
-Long wavelengths have lower frequencies perceived as a lower pitch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Distance from the peak of one sound wave to the next sound wave |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Found in fish and some amphibians-feel vibrations through LLS
-Hair cells that detect changes in water currents
-Cilia of hair cells protrude into cupula structure within lateral line canal system
-When cupula moves, cilia bend, and neurotransmitter is released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Junction of motor neuron's axon and muscle fiber
-Axon branches into terminals
-Terminals have stored vesicles containing neurotransmitter (acetyl-chlorine)
-Region of muscle fiber under axon terminal is folded into junctional folds to increase surface area
-ACh receptors is ligand-gated ion channels
-Na+ flows into muscle cell leading to depolarization and an action potential
-Excitation-contraction coupling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Neurotransmitter release
-Action potential conduction into T-tubules
-Calcium release from sacroplasmic reticulum
-Troponin effects tropomyosin, unblocking myosin binding sites on action filaments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Rely on lungs and highly permeable skin to obtain oxygen and get of CO2
-Heart pumps blood to either:
-Pulmocutaneous circulation-respiratory surfaces of lungs and skins
-Systemic circulation-body tissues
-2 atria to collect blood
-right atrium-blood that has been through the body (not lungs) and is low in oxygen
-left atrium-blood from lungs
-Both atria dump into single ventricle
-Internal structure causes oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to remain mostly separated
-Some mixing does occur reducing efficiency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Septum separates atria and ventricles
-Blood enters from systemic or pulmonary veins into atrium
-Through one-way atrioventricular (AV) valves into ventricles
-Out one-way semilunar valves into systemic or pulmonary arteries |
|
|
Term
| Mammalian Heart is Electrically Excitable |
|
Definition
-Can generate their own periodic action potentials
-"Myogenic Excitation"
-Nervous input can increase or decrease rate
-"Neurogenic" hearts of arthropods require regular electrical impulses from nervous system
-Activation of mammalian heart contraction
1. Sinoatrial Node (SA) node
-Rhythmic depolarization
-Collection of cardicc cells that spontaneously and rhythmically generate action potentials
2. Action potential spreads because cardiac cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions
3. Both atria contract together forcing blood thru valves into ventricles
4. Electrical impulses reach AV conduct impulse to ventricles
5. Both ventricles contract together forcing blood through valves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Events that produce a single heartbeat
-2 Phases
1. Diastole-atria contract and ventricles fill-ventricles relax
2. Systole-ventricles contract and blood is ejected from the heart-systemic blood pressure at highest
-Diastolic BP-lower number of BP
-Heart valves open and shut in response to pressure gradients |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Conduct blood away from the heart
-Layers of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue around smooth endothelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Smaller in diameter, branches of arteries
-Walls thinner than arteries, lack think layer of connective tissue
-Have smooth muscle encircling
-Can dilate or constrict to control blood distribution to tissues
-A key factor in blood pressure regulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-smallest, narrowest, and thinnest walled vessels in the body
-Arterioles branch into fine capillary networks
-Most cells are within a few cell diameter of capillary
-Site of gas and nutrient/waste exchange
-Single-celled thick endothelium layer on a basement membrane
-Fenestrated capillaries have openings or fenestration, allow for movement of considerable water and small solutes through walls
-Continuous capillaries have smooth walls, with no fenestration-permit less water and solute movement
-Capillary network drain into venules |
|
|
Term
| Movement of Materials through Capillaries |
|
Definition
1. Blood enters capillary on arteriole end under hydrostatic pressure
2. Pressure forces some fluid out of the blood (not red blood cells or large proteins)
-between cells
-small pores
-fenestrations
3. Hydrostatic pressure decreases along the capillary bed
4. Proteins on the blood create an osmotic force that draws fluid back into the blood
5. Most of the fluid that leaves will be recaptured by the venue end of the capillary
6. Lymphatic system will collect fluid that is not captured and return it to the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Capillaries come together to drain into venules
-Thin walls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Thinner and less elastic than arteries
-Needs help returning blood to the heart
-Smooth muscle contractions help propel blood
-Veins squeezed by skeletal muscles
=Flow is directed by undirectional valves-flows in one way |
|
|
Term
| Adaptive Capabilities of the Vascular System |
|
Definition
-System must adapt to changing conditions-sleep, feeding, sudden activity, and emergencies
-Blood can be routed to different areas in proportion to their need for oxygen and nutrients
-Can be controlled by vasodilation/vasoconstriction
-Pre-capillary sphincters
-Why you shouldn't eat a big meal before exercise |
|
|
Term
| Respiration and Gas Exchange |
|
Definition
-Referes to gas exchange processes in the body
-Two types:
1. Pulmonary respiration
-gas exchange moves carbon dioxide and oxygen between the air and blood
2. Internal Respiration
-gas exchange moves carbon dioxide and oxygen between blood and cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Atmospheric pressure is the sum of the "partial pressure" exerted by each gas in air
-Partial pressure is determined by the proportion of a particular gas in the atmosphere
PO2=0.21 x -160 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg
-Direction of gas diffusion is driven by partial pressure gradients
-Partial pressure can be defined for dissolved gases
-Rate and direction of gas diffusion into or out of blood is determined by partial pressure differences |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Air Composition-21% nitrogen, less than 1% CO2 and other gases, 18% nitrogen
-Atmospheric pressure-pressure exerted by the atmospheric on the body surfaces of animals
-Measure in mmHg or KPa
-1 KPa=7.5 mmHg
-Sea level=160 mmHg
-Atmospheric pressure decreases at higher elevations |
|
|
Term
| Solubility of gases in water |
|
Definition
-gases dissolve in solution-fresh water, sea water, or body fluids
-most gases dissolve poorly in water
-factors influencing solubility in water
-higher pressure will result in more gas in solution up to a limit for each gas
-cold water holds more gas than warm water
-the presence of other solutes decreases the amount of gas that dissolves into solution |
|
|
Term
| Organs/structures for gas exchange |
|
Definition
-All respiratory organs share common features:
-Moist surfaces in which gases dissolve and diffuse
-Often structure to provide large surface area for gas exchange
-extensive blood supply
Add more |
|
|
Term
| Blood Vessels and Blood Flow |
|
Definition
1. Arteries
2. Arterioles
3. Capillaries
4. Venules
5. Veins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Fluid connective tissue inclosed circulatory system
-Plasma-water and solutes
-Functions in buffering, water balance, and cell transport
-Contains proteins that are dissolved gases, minerals, and nutrients
-Erythrocytes-red blood cells
-Oxygen transport using hemoglobin
-Platelets or thrombocytes
-Role in formation of blood clots (fibrin precipitation)
-Leukocytes-white blood cells
-Defend body against invasion and diseases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-small pouches, site of gas exchange
-one celled, thick walls
-inner surface coated with extracellular fluid for gases to dissolve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Glottis (opening to trachea) protected by epiglottis, rings of cartilage, cilia, and mucus trap particles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Mammalian Respiratory Systems |
|
Definition
-Nose and mouth-air is warmed and humidified
-Mucus in the nose cleans the air of dust
-Pharynx
-Larynx
-Trachea
-Lungs
-Trachea branches into two bronchi
-Bronchioles-surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage
-Alveoli
-Surfactant chemicals reduce surface tension-prevent alveoli from collapsing |
|
|
Term
| Avian lungs and flow-through breathing |
|
Definition
-During inhalation, air moves through trachea into posterior air sacs, not lungs
-air in lungs (from previous breath) moves into anterior air sacs
-Air sacs expand and shrink-do not participate in gas exchange
-During exhalation, air moves from sacs into parabronchi-lungs
-Region of gas exchange, single direction flow through lung into anterior air sacs; exhalation empties air from sacs
-air in anterior sacs exists in the body
-Blood flows crosscurrent with respect to our movements |
|
|
Term
| Negative Pressure Ventilation |
|
Definition
-Reptiles, birds, mammals
-Volume of thoracic cavity expands, creating negative pressure, and air drawn into lungs
-Mammals-tidal ventilation
-Inhalation-intercostals contract to move chest wall up and down diaphragm contracts and drops down-thoracic cavity enlarges, pressure drops, and air is sucked in
Exhalation-intercostals and diaphragm relaxes-thoracic cavity compressed, pressure increases, and air is pushed out |
|
|
Term
| Amphibian Lungs and Positive Pressure Filling/Breathing |
|
Definition
-Most amphibians have lungs that are simple sacs
-Relatively low surface area
-Ventilate lungs similar to buccal pumping of fish
-Lowers bottom jaw to create pressure gradient to suck air in
-Muscles in mouth constrict (with mouth closed) to raise pressure and force air into lungs-positive pressure filling
-A few species of reptiles also use positive pressure filling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Almost all air-breathing terrestrial vertebrates use lungs
-Arachnids (scorpions and some spiders) have book lungs that actually more closely resemble gills
-Lungs may be filled using positive or negative pressure
-Lungs can be ventilated using tidal or flow through systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Spiracles on the body surface lead to tracheae that branch into tracheoles, terminating near every body cell
-Small amount of fluid for gas to diffuse into
-Muscular movements of body draw air into and out of tracheae
-Open circulatory system of insect not used in gas exchange
-Oxygen diffuses directly from air to tracheae to tracheoles to body cells
-Very efficient-supports insect flight muscles with highest metabolic rate known |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Fish gills are confined and protected within or cavity covered by operculum
-Gill arches-Main support structures
-Filaments branch off all gill arches
-Lameliae branch off of filaments
-Blood vessels run length of filaments
-Oxygen-poor blood travels through afferent vessels
-Oxygen-rich blood travels through efferent vessels
-Blood in capillaries flows in opposite direction of water flows-allows for more efficient gas exchange |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Vary widely in appearance but all have a large surface (extensive projections)
-May exist in one body area or be scattered over a large area, branching
-Limitations
-unprotected and subject to damage
-appearance and motion may attract predators |
|
|
Term
| Types of Exchange Surfaces |
|
Definition
1. Invertebrates with one or a few cell layers can use diffusion for gas exchange
-some do not even need specialized transport mechanisms
2. Larger organisms
-body surfaces may be permeable to gases
-amphibians are only vertebrates to rely their
skin
-specialized exchange surfaces-gills, lungs, tracheae |
|
|
Term
| Anatomy of Mammalian Respiratory System |
|
Definition
-Nose and mouth-air is warm and humidified
-Mucus in the nose cleans the air of dust
-Pharynx-hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (tube that goes to stomach)
-Larynx-vocal chords
-Trachea-glottis (opening to trachea, protected by epiglottis, rings of cartilage, cilia, and muscle trap particles)
-Lungs
-Trachea braches in 2 bronchii
-Bronchioles-surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage
-Alveoli-small pouches, site of gas exchange-one cell thick walls
-inner surface coated with extracellular fluid for gases to dissolve
-surfactant chemicals reduce surface tension, prevent alveoli from collapsing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Differences in partial pressures cause movement for oxen and carbon dioxide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-A major portion of an animal's body mass
-Solvent for chemical reaction
-Transport vehicle |
|
|
Term
| Dehydration may compromise essential processes |
|
Definition
-Examples: the circulatory system and regulation of body temperature when dehydrated, blood pressure is lowered and oxygen cannot be pushed through cells
-when you get flushed in exercise, the capillaries are opening |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Salts dissociate in solution into charged ions
-electrolyte balance transport
-imbalance can alter membrane potential or disrupt other cellular activities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Water moves between adjacent body compartments by osmosis down an osmotic gradient
-Changes in salt concentration in one compartment will lead to changes in fluid distribution between compartments
-shrinking or swelling cells can rupture plasma membrane leading to cell death |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Have the ability to alter salt and water balance
1. Breathing
-Loss of water by evaporation
-Fish can lose or gain water as water passes over gills
2. Cellular Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen= Carbon Dioxide + Water
3. Temperature Regulation
-Panting and sweating cause loss of water and salts
4. Elimination of Wastes
-Salts and water are lost in feces and urine
5. Food Intake
-Salt and water content |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Product of protein and nucleic acid degradation
-Toxic at high concentrations
-Must be eliminated from the body
-various organs and organ systems are utilized
-The chemical forms of excreted nitrogenous waste among animals varies |
|
|
Term
| Vertebrate Urinary System |
|
Definition
-Organ system designed to remove and dispose of nitrogenous waste, excess water, and blood solutes
-For terrestrial organisms, water conservation is often important.
-The vertebrate urinary system provides a mechanism to concentration waste products before release to reduce water loss |
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Term
| Kidney Functions in Vertebrate Urinary System |
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Definition
-Renal cortex-outer layer
-Renal medulla-center region
-Renal pelvis-where fluid drains into
-Ureters
-Urinary bladder
-Urethra |
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Term
| Filtration in Urinary System of Vertebrate |
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Definition
-Organ acts like a filter to remove water and small solutes from blood while leaving behind blood cells and large solutes
-Produces filtrate that is moved into excretory tubules |
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Term
| Reabsorption in Urinary System of Vertebrates |
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Definition
| -Desirable material in filtrate is recaptured and returned to blood |
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Term
| Secretion in Urinary System of Vertebrates |
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Definition
| -Additional solutes moved into filtrate by active transport mechanisms |
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Term
| Excretion in Urinary System of Vertebrates |
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Definition
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Term
| Types of Nitrogenous Wastes |
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Definition
1. Ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+)
-Most toxic of nitrogenous wastes
-Many aquatic animals can excrete as soon as it forms
-Some terrestrial snails & crustaceans secrete as gas
-Chief advantage: energy is not required for production
2. Urea
-All mammals, some marine fish, some reptiles, some terrestrial invertebrates
-Less toxic so it does not need as large a volume of water for excretion
-Can tolerate some urea accumulation
3. Uric acid
-Birds, insects, and most reptiles
-Less toxic than ammonia
-More energetically costly than urea to make from ammonia
-Balanced against water conserved by excreting semisolid, partly dried precipitate
Listed with a digression of toxicity |
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Term
| Examples of Water Balance in Aquatic Organisms |
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Definition
-Osmoregulation in freshwater fish
-gain water when ventilating gills
-kidneys produce copious dilute urine
-specialized gills epithelial cells transport Na+ and Cl- from water into fish's capillaries
-Hydrated, almost too much, by osmosis
2. Osmoregulation in saltwater fish
-Dehydrated by osmosis
-Lose water across gills
-Produce very little urine
-Drink seawater to replace water host
-Expend energy to transport excess salt out of the body thru gill epithelial cells |
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Term
| Water Balance in Aquatic Organisms |
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Definition
-Osmolarity of body fluids compared to fresh and saltwater environments
-osmolarity=total concentration of dissolved solute molecules/Liter
-150 mM NaCl solution = 300 mosm/L
-mM-millimoles/ mosm-milliosmolarity
-Internal fluid osmolarity of most fish and other vertebrates around 225-400 mosm/L
-Freshwater less than 25 mosm/L
-Seawater-1000 mosm/L
-Water moves by osmosis from areas of low osmolarity to high osmolarity
-Osmoconformers-many marine invertebrates and cartilagenous fishes maintain body fluid osmolarity similar to the surrounding environment |
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Term
| Invertebrates as Osmoconformers |
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Definition
-Many are osmoconformers, with wide tolerance (i.e. tidal pool organisms)
-Often have similar ionic concentration as seawater
-Hagfish are the only vertebrates that exhibit this approach to water balance |
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Term
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Definition
-Allow urea to accumulate in blood
-Total solute concentration similar to seawater, but solute composition is different |
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Term
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Definition
-Found in some platyhelminthes
-Simplest filtration mechanism in invertebrates
-Series of branching tubules filters fluids from body cavity using beating of ciliated cells (flame cells)
-Excess water and some wastes emptied thru openings in body wall called nephridiopores
-Beneficial solutes reabsorbed prior to excretion
-Primarily osmoregulatory
-Help to rid the body of excess water
-In these organisms, nitrogenous wastes mainly diffuse out of the body |
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Term
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Definition
-Found in annelids
-Pairs located in each body segment
-Tubular network beginning in funnel-like structure called nephrostome
-Collect coelomic fluid containing nitrogenous wastes and dissolved solutes
-Beneficial solutes reabsorbed along tubule length
-Nitrogenous wastes and excess solutes excreted through nephridiopores in body wall |
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Term
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Definition
-Found in insects
-Not a filtration system
-Tubules extend from the intestine
-Cells lining tubules actively transport and secrete solutes and uric acid from hemolymph into lumen of the malpighian tubules
-Transport of solutes creates osmotic gradient drawing water into tubule
-Material in tubules move to hindgut where water and beneficial solutes are reabsorbed
-Nitrogenous wastes and others excreted together with feces through anus |
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Term
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Definition
-Systems of specialized tubules composed of epithelial cells that actively transport sodium and other ions for salt and water homeostasis and nitrogenous waste elimination
-Nephrons are the functional units of kidney
-As many as several million in each kidney
-Nephron tubules empty into connecting duct
-Bowman's capsule encloses Bowman's space |
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Term
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Definition
1. Renal corpuscle (forms areas of filtration)
2. Tubule (performs secretion and reabsorption) |
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Term
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Definition
1. As blood flows through glomerulus, about 20% of plasma leaves capillaries and filters into Bowman's space
2. Proteins and blood cells remain in plasma
3. Glomerular filtrate=water and small solutes
4. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the rate of filtrate production by the kidneys |
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Term
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Definition
-Continuous with Bowman's capsule
-Epithelial cells differ in structure and function
-Segments of loop of Henle
-Proximal convoluted tubule (close to Bowman's capsule)
-Loop of Henle
-Descending goes down into the medulla
-Ascending comes up out of medulla and into cortex
-Distal convoluted tubules empty into collecting ducts
-Tubule surrounded by peritubular capillaries near junction of cortex and medullar and vasa recta capillaries in the medulla |
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Term
| Processes Occurring in Nephron Tubules |
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Definition
1. Reabsorption in proximal tubule
-Filtrate is around 300 mosm/L, similar to blood
-Water and solutes are reabsorbed into peritubular capillaries to return to the body
-Depending on solute, 2/3 to al is reabsorbed-Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, and organic molecules, like glucose and amino acids
2. Water and salt movement in the Loop of Henle
-Descending loop permeable to water but not solutes
-Water leaves by osmosis because surrounding fluid is hyperosmotic
-Fluid increases in osmolarity and solute concentration
-Ascending loop (thick segment) not permeable to water
-Tubule fluid decreases in osmolarity
-Interstitial fluid increases in osmolarity-hyperosmotic fluid |
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Term
| Concentration of Urine/ Conservation of Water |
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Definition
-An osmotic gradient in the kidney medulla is key to concentrating urine and conserving water
-Osmotic gradient, lower solute concentration in cortex and outer medulla, higher solute concentration in inner medulla
-Collecting duct permeable to water, but not to most ions
-Osmotic movement of water occurs from the collecting ducts to interstitial fluid of medulla |
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Term
| Establishing the Osmotic Gradient of the Kidney Medulla |
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Definition
-Causes:
-Pumping of NaCl out of ascending limb of loop of Henle
-causes osmosis of water out of descending loop and conducting ducts
-Facilitated diffusion of urea out of lower collecting duct
-Concentration of urine due to water loss by osmosis increases collecting duct urea concentrations |
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Term
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Definition
-Increases water retention
-Released when activation of stretch receptors in heart atria is reduced
-Acts on distal convoluted tubule cells to stimulate active transport of 3 molecules of Na+ out of tubule (reabsorption) for every 2 molecules of K+ brought into tubule (secretion)
-Water from tubule lumen follows Na+ by osmosis into kidney tissue and blood |
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Term
| Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) |
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Definition
-Also increase water retention
-Released by pituitary gland in conditions of low blood volume (dehydration) detected by: stretch receptors in arteries and osmoreceptors in hypothalamus in brain
-Acts to increase the number of aquaporines (water channels) in the collecting duct membranes
-Increased aquaporins allow water to leave collecting duct more rapidly so urine becomes more concentrated more quickly. |
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Term
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Definition
-Offspring are produced from a single parent without the fusion of gametes
-Offspring are genetically clones of the parent
-More prevalent in species that live in stable environments with little advantage for genetic diversity |
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Term
| Advantages of Asexual Reproduction |
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Definition
-Can reproduce asexually even if isolated
-Can reproduce rapidly
-All individuals can produce offspring |
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Term
| Two Major Forms of Asexual Reproduction |
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Definition
1. Budding
-Portion of parent organism pinches off to form completely new individual
2. Parthenogenesis
-Development of offspring from unfertilized egg
-Some animals reproduce sexually or parthenogenetically
-Under specific conditions, human eggs can be induced to undergo parthenogenesis but a viable embryo cannot form |
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Term
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Definition
-Production of a new individual by the joining of 2 haploid gametes
-Fertilization is the union of haploid egg and sperm to produce a diploid zygote
-Most species reproduce sexually
-Sexual reproduction allows for greater genetic variation in offspring
-Allows more rapid adaptations to environmental changes
-May allow masking of the effects of harmful alleles |
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Term
| Housing of Sexual Organs in Sexual Reproduction |
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Definition
-Dioecious ("two-houses")- two separate sexes (one produces sperm, the other eggs)
-Monecious ("one house")-hermaphroditism
-Both male and female reproductive systems present
-In very rare instances, organisms can fertilize their own eggs
-Most exchange sperm with another individual to increase genetic diversity
-Two types
-Synchronous hermaphroditism-individual simultaneously male and female (snails, earthworms, certain fish)
-Sequential hermaphroditism-sex reversal
-Protogynous-female first, becomes male (clownfish)
-Protandrous-male first, can become female (angelfish) |
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Term
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Definition
| -The study of organisms of the interactions between organisms and between organisms and their environments |
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Term
| Levels of Ecological Study |
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Definition
-Organismal
-Population
-Community
-Ecosystems |
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Term
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Definition
-Focuses on the specific characteristics of individual organisms and how these characteristics contribute to survival
-Physiological adaptations
-Tolerance/adaptation to changes in environmental conditions (temperature, water, salinity)
-Behavioral patterns
-Migration
-Foraging behaviors
-Social interactions
-Territoriality-living in groups
-Communication
-Altruism-individual gives up for benefit of the group
-Mating
-Seasonal patterns
-Mate choice
-Mating behaviors and structures |
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Term
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Definition
-Group of interbreeding individuals (same species) present in a particular area
-Focuses on the factors that influence the size, density, or growth of populations |
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Term
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Definition
-A group of populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time
-Community ecology focuses on how groups of different species interact, and form communities with distinct characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
-All the organisms in an area (biotic component) along with the abiotic environment (soil, water, nutrients)
-Ecosystems ecology focuses on the movement of energy and materials through organisms and their communities
-Food chains and webs
-Producers and consumers
-Tropic level transfer efficiencies
-What proportion of energy from one level in a food web is assimilated in the next higher level? -Nutrient cycles
-Nitrogen cycle
-Carbon cycle
-Sulfer cycle
-Water cycle |
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Term
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Definition
-Uses the tools of demography-birth rates, death rates, age distributions, and sizes of populations
-Density-number of organisms in a given unit area
-Population growth affects population density |
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Term
| Quantifying Population Density |
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Definition
-Simple visual count
-Sampling methods to extrapolate captured organism number to size of population
-Mark-recapture method:
Number of marked individuals in first catch/total population size N= number of marked population recaptures in second catch/total number of 2nd catch
-Total of individuals in first catch x total number of second catch/number of marked recaptures in 2nd catch |
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Term
| Clumped Dispersion Patterns |
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Definition
-Most common form of dispersion
-Resources tend to be clustered in nature
-Social behavior may also promote this |
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Term
| Uniform Dispersion Patterns |
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Definition
-Competition may cause this pattern
-May also result from social interactions |
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Term
| Random Dispersion Patterns |
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Definition
-Rarest
-Resources are rarely randomly spaced
-May occur where resources are common and abundant |
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Term
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Definition
-Plot numbers of surviving individuals (or proportion) for a particular age cohort
-May use logs to make it easier to examine wide range of population sizes |
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Term
| Three Common Patterns of Survivorship Curves |
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Definition
-Type 1-most die later in life (humans, hippos, etc.)
-Type 2-uniform rate of decline- smaller animals that have large predators (salamanders)
-Type 3-Huge decline in young-mature species live entire lifespans. (Moth)
-Humans used to be this type before medical advancements. |
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Term
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Definition
-Data collected on the number of individuals alive in each defined age class
-Males often not included (usually not a limiting factor for population growth)
-North American beaver example
-Trappers provide mandibles
-Teeth analyzed for age classification
-Assembled a "static" life table |
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Term
| Estimating Reproductive Rates from Life Table Data |
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Definition
-R0=net reproductive rate
-overall growth rate per generation
-number of offspring born to females of all ages
-To calculate future size of population in the next generation, multiply number of individuals in the population by the net reproductive rate.
-If R0 is greater than 1, population is growing.
-If R0 is less than 1, population is declining.
-If R0=1, population is at equilibrium. |
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Term
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Definition
-Reproductive strategies influence age structure in a population
-Semelparity vs. Iteroparity |
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Term
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Definition
-Produce all offspring in single reproductive event, individuals reproduce once and die
-Example: Annual Flowers |
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Term
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Definition
-Reproduce in successive years or breeding seasons
-Seasonal Iteroparity-distinct breeding seasons
-Continuous Iteroparity-reproduce repeatedly at any time of the year
-Example: Humans |
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Term
| Age distribution in Populations |
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Definition
-Reproductive strategy has a strong effect on subsequent age classes of a population
-Semelparous species produce large number of same-aged young called cohorts-individuals reproduce once, then die
-Iteroparous species have young of different ages; individuals reproduce more than once in their lifetimes
-Expect a population that is increasing in size to have a high proportion of young individuals and a stable or decreasing population to have smaller proportion of young individuals |
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Term
| Patterns of Population Growth |
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Definition
1. Exponential growth-resources are not limiting, rapid growth
2. Logistic growth-resources are limited, limits to growth |
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Term
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Definition
-Overall growth rate is the change in population size per unit time
-Overall growth rate will often be proportional to the size of the population
-Per capita birth and death rates are calculated by dividing the number of births or deaths by the total number of individuals in the population
-Example: 100 births to 1000 individuals/year=.1
50 deaths in 1000 1000 individuals/year=.05
-r=per capita rate of population growth
-Calculated by subtracting per capita death rate from birth rate
=birth rate per individual-death rate per individual
-rN=net population growth rate |
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Term
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Definition
-When r is greater than 0, population increase is observed.
-Characteristic "J-shaped" curve
-Because population growth depends on the value of N as well as the value of R, the population increase is greater as time passes and population increases
-Expect exponential growth with the introduction of a population to a uninhabited are, or with the population of an introduced exotic species (no resources limitations, no competition) |
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Term
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Definition
-For most species, resources becoming limiting as populations grow
-Carrying capacity (K) is the upper boundary for the size of a population (maximum number of individuals the environment can support)
-Growth rate is small at high and low values of N
-Growth rate is greatest when N=K/2
-Logistic growth is the pattern where growth slows down as the population size approaches the carrying capacity K
-Variation in nature change resource levels that cause changes in carrying capacity |
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Term
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Definition
-succeed due to high rate of per capita population growth, r
-Poor long-term ability-weeds
-Opportunistic short-term system
-Low parental care
-Rapid development
-High reproductive rate
-Early reproductive age
-Small body size
-Short length of life
-Weak Competitiveability
-High mortality
-Variable population size
-Good dispersal activity
-Disturbed habitat |
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Term
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Definition
-Have reproductive and growth strategies that allow populations to exist for long periods at or near carrying capacity, K
-Long-term strategy
-Lower reproductive rate but better competitors (trees)
-High parental care
-Slow development
-Low reproductive rate
-Late reproductive age
-Large body size
-Long length of life
-Strong competitiveability
-Low mortality rate
-Fairly constant population size
-Poor dispersal activity
-Not disturbed habitat type |
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Term
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Definition
-Most animals have certain shared embryonic developmental processes
-Most modern animals develop from embryos with 3 cell layers
-Chordates, arthropods, echinoderms, mollusks |
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Term
| Five General Stages of Embryonic Development |
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Definition
1. Fertilization
2. Cleavage (cells are becoming small and more abundant, but volume is not increasing)
3. Gastrulation
4. Neurulation
5. Organogenesis
-May include metamorphosis of larval into adult form |
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Term
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Definition
-Sperm can contact the egg inside or outside the female body
-Initial contact, followed by acrosomal reaction of the sperm where enzymes dissolve region of jelly-like layer allowing sperm to contact the plasma membrane of the egg
-Sperm head membrane fuses with egg membrane and penetrates
-After first sperm fuses, processes are initiated to prevent multiple sperm entry (blocks to "polyspermy")
-Burst of calcium also activates pathways initiating first cell cycle
-Nucleus of sperm and egg fuse creating diplod zygote |
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Term
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Definition
-Multiple fusions of sperm with egg
-Fusion depolarizes egg membrane so that no more sperm may enter |
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Term
| Slow block to polyspermy (cortical reaction) |
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Definition
-Chemical signal released into egg causes release of intracellular reaction
-Calcium causes fusion of cortical granules (secretory vessels) with egg membrane (cortical reaction)
-Cortical granule materials
-Create a space between the viteline envelope and the egg membrane
-Destroy proteins that normally bind sperm
-Chemically alter, harden the viteline membrane. |
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Term
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Definition
-Repeated cell cycles without cell growth
-"Biphasic" alternating only between mitotic (M) phase and DNA synthesis (S) phase (no G1 or G2) |
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Term
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Definition
-half-size daughter cells produced at each division
-Morula-solid ball of cells
-Blastula-hollow ball of cells with fluid-filled cavity
-Blastocoel-fluid-filled cavity within bastula |
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Term
| Yolk distribution and cleavage divisions |
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Definition
-In animals that produce eggs with significant yolk platelet content:
1. Vegetal pole-where yolk is more concentrated in egg
2. Animal pole-where there is less yolk and more cytoplasm in the egg
-Yolk distribution can impact the placement of early divisions
-In mammals, fertilization and cleavage occur in the oviduct
-Blastocyst stage emerges from oviduct, released into uterus
-Blastocyst consists of:
-Outer trophectoderm which gives rise to placenta
-Inner cell mass becomes embryo
-Embeds in uterine wall by a process of implantation |
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Term
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Definition
-Complete cell division creating two equal-sized blastomeres in the first division
-Amphibians and mammals
-Mammals undergo compaction creating a morula and forming a blastocyst |
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Term
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Definition
-Only the animal pole undergoes cell division
-Birds and some fish with large amounts of concentrated yolk
-Creates flattened disk called blastoderm |
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Term
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Definition
-Eggs and sperm are usually released in close proximity, usually in aquatic environments
-Species-specific behavior sometimes used to increase likelihood of egg/sperm encounter.
-Usually release very large number of egg/sperm at once |
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Term
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Definition
-Sperm deposited within female reproductive tract during copulation
-Protects delicate gametes from environmental hazards and predation
-Behaviors and anatomical structures extremely varied |
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Term
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Definition
| -embryo develops within the mother-derives nourishment from mother |
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Term
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Definition
-embryo develops inside an egg that is laid outside the mother
Protective shell
-Reduces female's metabolic investment but increases chances of predation of the egg |
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Term
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Definition
-eggs covered in a thin shell hatch retained inside mother but receive no (or little) nourishment from the mother
-Some fish, reptiles, and amphibians
-Hatch in mother prior to "live" birth |
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Term
| Male Mammalian Reproductive System Structure and Function |
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Definition
-Genitalia consist of penis and scrotum
-Scrotum holds testes where sperm develop at 2 degrees Celsius lower than core body temperature
-Each testis composed of coiled seminiferous tubules (site of spermatogenesis) and leydig cells (secrete testosterone; found in between tubules)
-Sperm released into lumen of seminferous tubules
-Sertoli cells in the wall of seminiferous tubules provide nutrients and protection to developing sperm |
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Term
| Path of sperm, accessory gland secretions |
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Definition
-Sperm then move into epididymis to complete their differentiation by becoming motile and capable of fertilization
-Then to vas deferens leading to ejaculatory duct and urethra
-Semen contains fluid and sperm
-Sperm about 5 percent of volume
-Fluid from seminal vesicles (fructose), bulbourethral glands (alkaline mucus), and prostate gland (protective fluid) |
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Term
| Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive System |
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Definition
-Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) made by hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follice-stimulating hormone (FSH)
-LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone
-FSH (with testosterone) stimulates sertoli cells and spermatogenesis
-Controlled by negative feedback |
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Term
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Definition
-Sertoli cells and germ cells to stimulate spermatogenesis
- Stimulates growth of male reproductive tract and genitalia during development and puberty
-Stimulates development of male secondary characteristics-facial hair, horns on bulls, bright feathers of peacock |
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Term
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Definition
-Genitalia differentiate from the same embryonic tissue as male genitalia.
-Labia majora derive from the same embryonic tissue as scrotum
-Labia minora derived from same embryonic tissue as urethra in male penis
-Clitoris same erectile tissue as penis
-External opening leads to vagina, cervix, and into uterus
-Uterus has inner glandular lining (endometrium) and outer muscular layer (myometrium)
-Eggs develop into one of two ovaries
-Typically, one egg released int abdominal cavity
-Quickly drawn into oviduct or fallopian tube by movement of fingerlike fimbriae
-Egg moved down oviduct by action of cilia that line the inner walls
-Fertilization usually occurs in oviduct, early cell divisions occur as egg moves down oviduct.
-Blastocyst is a ball of 32-50 cells that enters uterus
-During the first week, several primary oocytes begin to mature/develop, each within a follicle.
-By second week, only one follicle and its primary oocyte continue developing
-Primary oocyte completes meiosis 1 to become secondary oocyte.
-Secondary oocyte surrounded by cumulus mass which secretes estradiol.
-At ovulation, follicle rup luteum tures releasing egg, zona pellucida, and cumulus mass
-Empty follicle becomes the corpus, which secretes progesterone that stimulates uterus to maintain wall to allow an embryo to implant and develop.
-If there is no pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates and a new set of follicles begin developing. |
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Term
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Definition
-First half of ovarian cycle when growth and differentiation of follicle occurring
-Fairly low LH levels stimulate follicular cells to make estradiol (estrogen)
-Estradiol levels slowly increase
-Initially, estradiol exerts a negative feedback action on LH and FSH to prevent their blood levels from rising until the follicle is ready to ovulate
-When the follicle is mature, its estradiol production jumps.
-Feedback switches from negative to positive resulting in a spike of production of LH and FSH
-LH spike induces ovulation |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-Corpus luteum develops and secretes progesterone
-Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH secretion and prepares uterus to receive embryo
-If fertilization occurs, cells surrounding the embryo produce chorionic gonadotropin which prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum
-If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates in 2 week and cycle begins again |
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Term
| Phases of the Uterine (menstrual) cycle |
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Definition
-Proliferative phase
-Under the influence of rising levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum after ovulation, the endometrium becomes thicker and more vascularized (rich with blood vessels)
-Secretory phase
-Glands develop that secrete nutritive substances to sustain embryo for first two weeks |
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Term
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Definition
-If an embryo does not implant into the endometrial lining of the uterus, menstruation occurs
-Menstruation occurs as the corpus luteum degenerates, and progesterone and estrogen levels decrease
-Other mammals have estrous cycle, involving reabsorption processes.
-If embryo does implant, the endometrial lining is maintained. |
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Term
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Definition
| -shedding of endometrial lining |
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Term
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Definition
-Most females are born with all the primary oocytes they will ever have
-Primarily oocytes have begun, but not completed meiotic divisions
-In humans, about 1 million primary oocytes at birth but degeneration leaves about 200,000 in each ovary at puberty (about 300-400 of these will be released from the ovary during lifetime)
-Ovarian cycle last approximately 28 days
-Several oocytes begin maturation but one one is ovulated each cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| -Oocytes become depleted and ovulation stops |
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Term
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Definition
assemblage of many populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time
-Can occur on a wide variety of scales and can be nested/overlapping |
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Term
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Definition
| -Often studies how groups of species interact and form functional communities |
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Term
| Organismic Model by Clements |
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Definition
-Studied succession patterns in plants
-Individuals, populations, and communities have a relationship to each other that resembles the associations found between cells, tissues, and organs in organism
-Due to long co-evolutionary history, species tend to group together into communities with defined species composition |
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Term
| Individualistic Model by Gleason |
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Definition
| -Community is an assemblage of species coexisting primarily because of similarities in their physiological requirements and tolerances |
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Term
| Whittaker's Species Distribution Studies |
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Definition
-Looked at plant species distributions along climate gradients in mountain ranges in California, and other locations.
-Results generally supported Gleason's individualistic hypothesis
-Each species is distributed according to its physiological needs and population dynamics
-Most communities intergrade continuously
-Competition does not create distinct, well defined vegetational zones
-Whittaker concluded his results supported Gleason's predictions that:
-Each species is distributed in its own way, according to its genetic, physiological, and life cycle characteristics
-Broad overlap and scattered centers of species populations along a gradient implies that most... |
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Term
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Definition
-Number of species present in a community
-Number of species of most taxa varies according to geographic range
-Increasing from polar to temperate to maximum in tropical
-Increases by topographical variation
-Reduced by peninsular effect |
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Term
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Definition
-Hypothesis for Polar-equational gradient in species richness
-Temperate regions have more recently recovered from glaciations
-Resident species have not evolved to exploit vacant niches or species have not migrated hack into now unglaciated areas
-Support: more aquatic species in comparable unglaciated lakes than glaciated
-Drawback: limited applicability to marine organisms; glaciation not an issue |
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Term
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Definition
-Hypothesis for polar-equatorial gradient in species richness
-Communities extending over larger areas have more species because they can support larger populations and inhabit a greater range of habitats.
-Support: significant relationship between insect diversity and host tree range (species area effect)
-Problem: Does not hold up for all cases |
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Term
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Definition
-Hypothesis for polar-equatorial gradient in species richness
-Greater photosynthetic productivity of plants results in greater overall species richness
-Support: plants grow better where it is warm and wet and species richness in tress can be predicted by the evaporation/transpiration rate
-Problem: Some warm bodies of water have low photosynthetic activity. (visa versa) |
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Term
| Effects of Community Disturbance |
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Definition
-Are stable communities more diverse than unstable communities?
-Intermediate-disturbance hypothesis |
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Term
| Intermediate-disturbance hypothesis |
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Definition
-Highest diversity are observed in communities with intermediate levels of disturbance
-At high rates of disturbance, only r-selected species would survive-low diversity
-At low disturbance, K-selected specie would outcompete others-low diversity
-Example:
-Fall of a tree creates a light gap in the rainforest canopy
-Direct sunlight is able to reach rainforest floor
-Light gap is rapidly colonized by r-selected species which are well adapted for rapid growth.
-While these pioneering species grow rapidly, they are overtaken. |
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Term
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Definition
-Gradual and continuous change in species composition and community structure over time
-Clements suggests that succession has a distinct end point (climax community)
-Succession is a series of transient communities called seres or seral stages
-Disturbance might set the community back to an earlier seral stage
-After disturbance, the community will once again proceed toward climax
-Each colonizing species alters the environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| -Succession on a newly established site that is largely abiotic (lava flow) |
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Term
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Definition
| -Succession on a site that is supporting some living things, but that has undergone a disturbance, such as a fire or tornado |
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Term
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Definition
| -Colonizing species changed the environment so that it becomes more suitable for the next species |
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Term
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Definition
-Cells within blastocyst move to form gastrula with 3 distinct cell layers
1. Endoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Ectoderm
-In chordates and echinoderms, the initial area of inward cell movements (the blastopore) becomes the anus
-Deuterostomes: Anus is formed first, the mouth second.
-Protosomes: Mollusks, arthropods, and nematodes
-In chordates and echinoderms, the archenteron displaces blastocoel to become organism's digestive tracct |
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Term
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Definition
| -Forms epithelial lining of gut, liver, pancreas, lung, and bladder |
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Term
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Definition
| -Forms heart, limbs, muscles, kidneys, blood, and connective tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| -Forms epidermis and nervous system |
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Term
| Cellular Changes/Movements during Gastrulation |
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Definition
-Invagination
-Ingression
-Involution |
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Term
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Definition
-Observed in echinoderms (sea urchins, sea stars, etc.)
-During invagination, an epithelial sheet bends inward to form an inpocketing |
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Term
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Definition
-Occurs during mammalian and avian gastrulation
-During ingression, cells leave an epithelial sheet by transforming from epithelial cells into freely migrating mesenchyme cells |
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Term
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Definition
| -A tissue sheet rolls inward to form an underlying layer via bulk movement of a tissue layer |
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Term
| Cells in 3 layers express different genes |
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Definition
-May cause cells to behave differently
-Migrate, stick to one another, disperse, communicate with each other
-Signals between layers or within layers directs complex development steps
-Differentiation
-Functional or structural specialization of cells
-Fate of each cell determined by:
-Autonomous specification
-Differential acquisition of various cytoplasmic factors during cell division
-Induction (external factors)
Acquisition properties thru cell to cell signaling mechanisms (secreted factors, cell-cell contact gap junctions)
-Work together so that distinct cells differentiate into each of the numerous cell types with unique functions |
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Term
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Definition
-Formation of neural tube from ectoderm located dorsal to notochord
-All neurons and their supporting cells in the CNS originate from neural precursor cells derived from neural tube |
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Term
| Steps of Neurulation in Vertebrates |
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Definition
-Ectoderm overlaying notochord thickens forming neural plates
-Neural plate forms neural tube by infolding
-Fusion: Dorsal most cells on either side of neural tube fuse to close neural tube |
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Term
| Neural Crest Wall Migration |
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Definition
-Cells on the dorsal side of neural tube migrate to other regions of embryo to form all neuron and supporting cells of peripheral nervous system
-Also form melanocytes, cells forming facial cartilage and parts of adrenal glands |
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Term
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Definition
-PGCS
-Specialized group of embryonic cells that migrate to future site of gonads
-Once in a gonad, develop into a population of cells that can undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes |
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Term
| Pulmocutaneous Circulation |
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Definition
| -Blood is routed from the heart through different vessels to the respiratory surfaces |
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Term
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Definition
| -Blood is routed from the heart through different vessels to the body tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| -Refers to the volume of blood that is composed of red blood cells, usually between 40-65% among vertebrates. |
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Term
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Definition
-A condition of increased hemoglobin due to increased hematocrit
-Can occur rapidly to increase the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity |
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Term
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Definition
| -Signaling mechanism that initiates contraction resides within the cardiac muscle itself |
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Term
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Definition
| -Will not beat unless it receives regular electrical impulses from the nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
-pacemaker
-collection of modified cardiac cells that spontaneously and rhythmically generate action potentials that spread across the entire atria. |
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Term
| Atrioventricular (AV) node |
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Definition
-sits near the junction of the atria and ventricles and conducts the electrical events from the atria to the ventricles
-Electrically excitable, but its cells require a longer time to become excited than do the cells of the atria |
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Term
| Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) |
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Definition
-A record of the electrical impulses generated during the cardiac cycle
-The trace on the EKG reveals several waves of electrical excitation.
-EKG machine displays both the amplitude (strength) of the electrical signal and the direction that the signal is moving in the chest. |
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Term
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Definition
-Forms a smooth lining in contact with the blood
-Most dissolved substances cannot diffuse across the artery walls, because of the thick layers of tissue surrounding the endothelium. |
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Term
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Definition
| -Refers to an increase in blood vessel radius |
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Term
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Definition
| -Refers to a decrease in blood vessel radius |
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Term
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Definition
| -A hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, which receive input from the sympathetic nervous system during exercise |
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Term
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Definition
-Enhances the later effect of epinephrine
-Neurotransmitter |
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Term
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Definition
-Water in the lungs gives them a congested sound in a stethoscope
-If this congestion causes a failure in the hear to pump blood normally, congested heart failure occurs |
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Term
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Definition
-Myocardial infarction (MI)
-A region of the heart is deprived of blood for an extended time
-Occur at localized regions of heart muscle that have died due to oxygen and fuel deprivation. |
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Term
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Definition
-A thin tube with a tiny, inflatable balloon at its tip is threaded through the artery to the diseased area.
-Treatment to restore blood flow through the blood vessel |
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Term
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Definition
-Treatment to restore blood flow through a blood vessel
-A smal piece of healthy blood vessel is removed from one part of the body and surgically grafted onto the coronary circulation in such a way that blood bypasses the diseased artery. |
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Term
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Definition
| -Process of bringing oxygenated water or air into contact with a gas-exchange surface. |
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Term
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Definition
| -The volume of air that is normally breathed in and out at rest |
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Term
| Proximal Convoluted Tubule |
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Definition
| -The segment of the tubule that drains Bowman's capsule |
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Term
| Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) |
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Definition
| -The rate at which the filtrate is formed in Bowman's space |
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Term
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Definition
-The first event of pregnancy in non-egg laying mammals
-The blastocyst embeds within the uterine endometrium, which occurs in humans within 1-2 weeks, typically around 8-10 days after fertilization. |
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Term
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Definition
-Also known as birth
-Is initiated by the actions of several hormones and other factors secreted by the mother |
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Term
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Definition
| -Females store and nourish sperm in their reproductive tract for long periods of time, as long as two years in honeybees. |
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Term
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Definition
-Type of reproductive cycle
-Ensures that bats mate when they are in prime condition, and that the young are born when temperatures and food supplies are optimal. |
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Term
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Definition
-A fertilized egg reaches the uterus but does not implant until later, when environmental conditions are more favorable for the newly produced young.
-Common among carnivores |
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Term
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Definition
| -The use of procedures to prevent fertilization or implantation of a fertilized egg |
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Term
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Definition
| -A surgical procedure in men that severs the vas deferens, thereby preventing the release of sperm at ejaculation. |
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Term
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Definition
| -Placed in the upper part of the vagina just prior to intercourse to block movement of sperm to the cervix. |
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Term
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Definition
| -Mediates the spreading of ectoderm in the animal pole toward the vegetal pole |
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Term
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Definition
| -The cylindrically shaped cavity that displaces the existing blastocoel |
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Term
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Definition
| -The study of birth rates, death rates, age distributions, and the sizes of populations |
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Term
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Definition
| -The upper boundary for the population size |
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Term
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Definition
| -The pattern in which the growth of a population typically slows down at it approaches K |
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Term
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Definition
| -The shift in birth and death rates with development |
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Term
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Definition
| -Aggregate total of land needed for survival in a sustainable world |
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Term
| Principle of Species Individuality |
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Definition
| -States that each species is distributed according to its physiological needs and population dynamics, that most communities intergrade continuously, and that competition does not create distinct vegetational zones |
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Term
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Definition
| -The rate at which water moves into the atmosphere through the processes of evaporation from the soil and transpiration of plants |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| -Seeks to identify and analyze the collective microbial genomes contained in a community of organisms, including those that are not easily cultured in the lab. |
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Term
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Definition
| -Refers to succesion on a newly exposed site that was not previously occupied by soil and vegetation, such as bare ground caused by a volcanic eruption |
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Term
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Definition
| -Refers to succession on the site that has already supported life but has undergone a disturbance, such as a fire, tornado, hurricane, or flood |
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Term
| Three Mechanisms of Succession |
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Definition
1. Facilitation
2. Inhibition
3. Tolerance |
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Term
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Definition
| -The pool of species that is available to colonize the island |
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