Term
|
Definition
-Small amplitude depolarization or hyperpolarization
-Amplitude varies incrementally depending on strength of stimulus
-Occur locally, spreads a short distance, dies out |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Always the same, large amplitude depolarization (cell membrane potential becomes positive)
-All or none, either triggered or not
-Activity propagated outward from initial location
-Regenerative-an action potential in one area of the membrane can invoke an action potential in an adjacent area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-More common
-Neurotransmitter acts as a signal from presynaptic to postsynaptic cell
-When action potential reaches axon terminal, calcium enters cells thru voltage-gated calcium channels
-Presynaptic nerve cell contains vesicle containing neurotransmitters
-Calcium release causes vesicles to fuse with membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
-Neurotransmitters diffuse across cleft and binds to ligand-gated channels or receptors in postsynaptic cell membrane
-Can cause depolarization or hyperpolarization |
|
|
Term
| Neurons and Nervous System |
|
Definition
-Nervous tissue found in all animal phyla, except sponges
-Allow for rapid detection of and response to environmental and internal stimuli
-Coordinate muscular and other responses: movement, glandular secretions, cardiovascular and respiratory system control, and homeostatic regulation
-Biological basis for consciousness, memory, and learning
-Composed largely of two cell types
-Neurons-actively conduct electrical signals
- Gilial cells (gila)-construction and operations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cells in the nervous system that use electrical impulses to transmit signals to other cells of the body
-Neurons transmit signals to other neurons, and to other cell types in the body
-Humans have one 1 billion neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cell body or soma contains nucleus and many other cellular organelles
-Dendrites-relatively short fibrous extensions of the plasma membrane
-may be single or branched
-transmit incoming electrical signals
-Axons-longer fibrous extensions of plasma membrane
-typically single but can be branched
-send electrical signals propagating outwards from
cell body
-axon hillock-base of the axon, near cell body, place
where electrical impulse is created-nerve cell
communication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Sensory Neurons
-detect stimuli from outside world or internal body
conditions
-act as sensory receptors or interact with sensory
receptors
-afferent neurons-transmit signals to CNS
2. Motor neurons
-send signals away from CNS to elicit response
3. Interneurons
-form interconnections between other neurons
The Reflex Arc-involves all three types
-sensory neurons-CNS-motor neurons
-knee-jerk response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Provides metabolic support for neurons
-Form blood-brain carrier-protect cells
-Function as stem cells to produce more glial cells
-10-1000xs more numerous than neurons
-Types:
1. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells make up myelin
sheath
2. Astrocytes-metabolic support and protection of
neurons
3. Microglia-migrating population that removes cellular
debris
4. Radial glia-form tracks for neuronal migration in
embryos |
|
|
Term
| Resting Membrane Potential |
|
Definition
| -Electrical potential when neurons are not sending signals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Difference in charge inside and outside the cell
-Plasma membrane acts as a barrier (separating charges)
-Ion concentrations differ between the inside and outside
of the cell
-Electrically polarized |
|
|
Term
| Measuring membrane potential |
|
Definition
-Voltmeter can record the voltage difference between the
microelectrodes inside and outside the neurons
-Observed resting potential
- -70 millivolts
-interior more negative than exterior
-On the outer surface |
|
|
Term
| Factors Contributing to resting membrane potential |
|
Definition
1. Na+/K+- ATPase (sodium-potassium pump)
2. Negatively charged molecules such as proteins more abundant inside cell
3. Ion specific channels allow passive diffusion of ions down concentration and charge gradients |
|
|
Term
| Electrical Properties of Neurons |
|
Definition
-An electromagnetic gradient
-Combined effects of electrical and chemical gradients
determine how ions move across the membrane
-Opposing chemical and electrical gradients can create
an equilibrium where there is no net movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cell membrane potential becomes less negative
-Inside of cell is less negative relative to surrounding
environment
-Typically in neurons, gated channels open allowing
Na+ to flow in and membrane potential becomes
more positive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-While inactivation gate of Na+ closed cell is unresponsive to another stimulus-cannot initiate another action potential
-Sodium-Potassium pump restores sodium and potassium gradients across membrane
-Places limits on the frequency of action potentials |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cell membrane is more polarized, cytoplasm of cell becomes more negative relative to surrounding environment
-In neurons, hyperpolarization can occur if K+ moves out of the cell making the interior of the cell less positive |
|
|
Term
| Changes in membrane potential |
|
Definition
-All cells have a membrane potential
-Neurons and muscle cells are electrically excitable-capacity to generate and conduct electrical signals
-Excitable cells use gated ion channels
-Voltage-gated-open and close in response to voltage
changes
-Ligand-gated-open and close in response to ligands
or chemicals |
|
|
Term
| Sequence of events of action potentials |
|
Definition
1. Begins when graded potential depolarizes to threshold potential
Threshold= -50 mv
2. Voltage-gated Na+ chemicals open-triggers action potential
3. Na+ diffuses into cell-causes spike in membrane potential
4. Inactivation gate in Na+ channel swings shut after 1 msec-won't reopen until resting potential is restored
5. Voltage-gated K+ opened by threshold potential
6. K+ ions leave cells and membrane potential becomes negative again |
|
|
Term
| Delivery of sperm to egg cells |
|
Definition
1. a pollen tube conveys 2 sperm cells to the female gametophyte
2. tip growth controlled by tube cell nucleus
3. New cytoplasm and cell wall material added to tip of elongating cell
4. tube enters micropyle of ovule
5. callose plugs concentrate components of the cytoplasm at the tip |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Stores and concentrates fecal matter and absorb some salt and water
-Lowers excess blood salts secreted from wall of large intestine into lumen
-Bacterial metabolism provides certain nutrients (vitamin K, biotin, folic acid)
-Ascending, transervse, and descending segments
-Terminal portion of alimentary canal-rectum and anus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Most ingested carbs are starch and cellulose with some monosaccharides and disaccharides
-Starch digestion by salivary amylase occurs in the mouth
-Additional starch digestion by pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharides occurs in intestine
-Monosaccharides transported and across intestinal epithelium into the blood
-secondary active transport
-facilitated diffusion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Pepsin (enzyme that partially digests proteins) in the stomach breaks protein chains into small peptides
-Pancreas secretes trypsin and chymotrypsin
-in neutral pH
-secreted as inactive zymogens activated in small
intestine
-small intestine enzymes complete protein digestion to dipeptides or amino acids
-transported into intestinal cells by secondary active transport then into blood stream |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Most ingested at triglycerides
-Digestion occurs entirely in small intestine
-Bile salts emulsify fat into small droplets with increased surface area for digestion
-Pancreatic lipase-breaks down triglycerides clips fatty acids off of glycerol backbone
-Bile salts, fatty acids, and monoglycerides form tiny micelles
-diffuse from micelles and diffuse into epithelial cell
-Triglycerides reform inside intestinal cells
-Triglycerides and other lipids are assembled into chylomicrons (released by exocetosis form epithelial cells transmitted into lacteals)
-will enter into blood circulation from lymph fluid |
|
|
Term
| VItamins, Minerals, and Water |
|
Definition
-Do not require digestion
-Absorbed in complete form
-Fat-soluble vitamins follow pathways for fat absorption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Broad axons provide less resistance and action potential moves faster
-The larger the diameter, the faster the speed of conduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Myelinated faster than unmyelinated
-Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann (PNS) cells make myelin sheath
-Not continuous-gaps at nodes of Ranvier
-Saltatory conduction-action potential jumps to next node
-Glial cells are installators
-Not a fine sequence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-each plant species has distinctive shape to pollen wall
-Composed largely of sporopollenin
-Male reproduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Component in tough outer wall of spores and pollen grain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Junction where nerve terminal meets a neuron, muscle cell, or gland
-Place between presynaptic cell and postsynaptic cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Ions freely flow thru gap junctions from cell to cell
-Electrical current flows from presynaptic to postsynaptic |
|
|
Term
| Chemical Synapses-Post Synaptic Receptors |
|
Definition
1. Types of post-synaptic receptors
-Neuron type-specific
-Bind to specific ligands (neurotransmitters)
2. Different types of effects of neurons
-Ionotropic receptors-ligand-gated ion channels open in response to neurotransmitters
-metabolic receptors-G-protein coupled receptors initiate changes in postsynaptic cell
3. Can have excitatory or inhibitory effects
-trigger opening of sodium channels or potassium channels |
|
|
Term
| Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential |
|
Definition
-EPSP
-Deporalization-excitatory neurotransmitter depolarizes postsynaptic cell
-brings membrane closer to threshold potential
-Less negative compared to surrounding fluid |
|
|
Term
| Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential |
|
Definition
-IPSP
-Hyperpolarization-inhibitory neurotransmitter usually hyperpolarizes postsynaptic cell
-Moves membrane farther away from threshold potential
-Opening of ligand-gated potassium channels
-Cell becomes more polarized |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Large amounts of water enter the long-distance conducting cells of the xylem carrying solutes along |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Mass movement of liquid caused by pressure, tension, gravity, capillary action, or a combo of some of these
-Does not move liquids and dissolved solutes as fast as diffusion |
|
|
Term
| Movement of fluid in xylem and phloem |
|
Definition
| High solute concentration to low solute concentration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Long and narrow with slanted end walls
-Lignin-containing
-Pits-nonlignified holes allow for water to flow from one tracheid to another |
|
|
Term
| Vessels and Vessel Elements |
|
Definition
-Aligned in pipe-like files known as vessels
-Gives greater capacity for bulk flow to flowering plants
-Water flow faster thru vessels than tracheids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Plants expend little or no energy on bulk flow thru xylem
-Forces that power xylem bulk flow:
1. Adhesion-water sticks to lignified walls of xylem vessels
2. Water is cohesive due to strong hydrogen bonding
3. Sun's energy indirectly powers transpiration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Heat from sunlight
-Causes evaporation at leaf surfaces
-90% of water taken in is lost by evaporation
-tension exerted on water by evaporation at plant's surface pulls a continuous stream of water from the soil
2. Use of water in photosynthesis
-Formation of reduced carbon compounds
-Less than 10% of water uptake |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Nearly all digestion of food, and absorption of food and water occur in the first quarter of intestinal length
-Digestive enzymes found an inner (lumenal) surface or secreted into lumen by pancrease
-Products of digestion absorbed across epithelial cells that line the inner surface of small intestine and enter circulation
-Vitamins, minerals, and water also absorbed
-Small intestine specialized for increased surface area:
1. Mucosa (internal surface epithelium) is folded
2. Villi-finger-like projection on mucosal surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Capillaries-nutrients other than fat absorbed into blood
2. Lacteal (lymphatic vessel)-allows for larger fat particles to enter
-eventually dumped into blood
3. Epithelial cells covered with microvilli creating brush border
-increase surface area 600 fold
-increase likelihood of encountering digestive enzyme and being absorbed |
|
|
Term
| Ruminant Herbivore Stomach |
|
Definition
-Herbivores must digest cellulose but lack cellulose enzyme
-Rely on microbes to digest cellulose into monosaccharides
-Ruminants have complex stomachs
1. Forestomach-3 lower esophageal pouches
-Rumen and reticulum-contain cellulose digesting
enzymes
-Omasum-absorbs some of the water and salts from
food
2. Cud-regurgitated, rechewed, and swallowed
3. Abomasum-true stomach
-contains acid and protective enzymes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Saclike organ for storing food and digestion
-changes the shape of and partially digests proteins
-Cells in gastric glads secrete:
-Hydochloric acid-secreted by parietal cells in walls of pit; kills microbes, dissolves particulate matter
-Pepsinogen-secreted by chief cells in wall of pits; inactive form converted to pepsin to begin protein digestion
-No lipid or carb digestion
-Digestive processes reduce food to liquid chyme
-Stomach muscles, pyloric sphincter regulate rate of emptying into small intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Single elongated tube with entry and exit ends
-Lined with epithelial cells
-synthesized and secrete digestive enzymes
-secrete hormones
-absorb digested material
-several specialized regions
-different regions specialized for different processes
-allows for more complete and efficient digestion and absorption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Mammalian-Alimentary Canal
-Dentition (teeth) and tongue
-Aid in breaking food into smaller pieces and swallowing
-Salvia
-Released by salivary glands
-Moistens and lubricates food
-Dissolve food particles to facilitate taste and increase accessibility to digestive enzymes
-Lysozyme enzyme in salvia kills ingested bacteria
-Initiate digestion of polysaccharides with salivary amylase enzyme |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Pharynx-regulates movement of food into esophagus
-Esophagus-transmits food from pharynx to stomach
-Pathways only-no digestion
-Crop is in other animal groups |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-One opening is entry and exit
-Extracellular digestion
-Epithelial lining of the cavity secretes digestive enzymes
-breaks down food into smaller molecules
-partially digested food particles phagocytosed, molecules absorbed
-digestion of particles completely intracellularly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Only found in simple invertebrates (sponges)
-Tiny bits of food are phagocytosed
-Food molecules broken down by enzymes in lysosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Digestion occurs in a body cavity prior to being absorbed into the body and transported
-Enzymes secreted from cells into lumen of body cavity or organ
-Allows larger foods to be taken in and utilized as nutritional sources
-Gastrovascular cavities
-Alimentary canals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in fat tissue
-Water-soluble vitamins are not stored
-Not all animals require the same vitamins
-Vitamins serve as coenzymes (play essential functions in enzyme catalyzed reactions) |
|
|
Term
| Strategies for obtaining food |
|
Definition
1. Trapping food
2. Suspension feeders filter organic material from water
3. Predators kill their prey
4. Scavengers feed on prey
5. Grazers constantly eat grass
6. Frugivores feed on fruit
7. Fluid feeders suck fluid from animals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-8 required by many animals
-isoleucine, leucine, iysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine
-Cannot be synthesized by animal's cells
-Are not stored
-Carnivores and omnivores readily obtain all essential amino acids in meat
-Most plant food sources do not contain every essential amino acid in sufficient quantity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Needed for building fats, phospholipids, and steroid hormones
-Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by animal cells
-Production of certain hormones requires intake of plant-derived fatty acids
-thromboxanes, prostaglandins (blood clotting, inflammatory responses)
-unsaturated fatty acids found primarily in plants
-strict carnivores obtain them from animal prey items |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Inorganic ions
-Many required in only trace amounts (mineral micronutrients)
-less than 1-2 mg/day in humans
-often needed as required cofactors for protein structure and function
-Ex. cobalt iodine and copper
-Some required in larger amounts (macronutrients)
-More than 10 mg/day in humans
-Needed for: energy metabolism, body structure, membrane transport, and electrical impulses
-Ex. calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Certain compounds cannot be synthesized from any ingested or stored precursor molecule
-4 groups:
Essential amino acids
Essential fatty acids
Essential minerals
Essential vitamins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Organic food molecules:
1. carbs
2. proteins
3. lipids
4. nucleic acids
5. vitamins
-Inorganic nutrients:
-phosphate, potassium, sodium, calcium, iron, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Specialized cells of a given type cluster together to perform a specific function
-Animal tissues can be classified into 4 main categories:
1. Muscle
2. Nervous
3. Epithelial
4. Connective |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Sheets of densely packed cells that:
-cover the body or individual organs
-line the walls of the body cavities
-Specialized to protect, provide selective permeability, and secrete or absorb materials
-Rest on basal lamina or basement membrane (secreted extracellular matrix) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Initiate and conduct electrical signals from one part of the animal's body to another
-electrical signals produced in one nerve cell may stimulate or inhibit other nerve cells
-stimulate new electrical signals in adjacent neurons
-stimulate muscles to contract
-stimulate glands to release chemicals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-includes blood, adipose (fat), bone cartiliage, loose or dense connective tissue
-oftentimes much of connective tissue is composed of extracellular matrix around cells
-Functions:
1. Provides scaffold for attachment
2. Protects and cushions
3. Mechanical strength
4. Transmit mechanical forces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cells specialized to contract
-Three types in higher animals
1. skeletal-attached to bone or exoskeleton for locomotion-voluntary control
2. smooth-surrounds hollow tubes and cavities for propulsion of contents-involuntary control
3. cardiac-only in the heart-involuntary control |
|
|
Term
| What is unique about animals in comparison to plants? |
|
Definition
1. No cell wall
-Impacts development events
-Tissue/organ structure
2. No photosynthesis-acquisition of organic nutrients
3. Rapid, coordinated movement used in pursuit of food, or avoidance of predators |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Cylindrical with a single cotyledon and a side notch where apical meristem forms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. exchange materials with their surroundings
2. obtain energy from organic nutrients
3. synthesize complex molecules
4. duplicate themselves
5. detect and respond to signals in their immediate environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Spherical but become heart-shaped as cotyledons develop
-Shoot meristems develop between cotyledons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-embryogenesis is the development of single-celled zygotes by mitosis
-first cell division is unequal
-establishes apical-basal polarity
-smaller cell develops into embryo
-larger cell develops into suspensor that channels nutrients and hormones
-Suspensor disappears and older embryos rely on endosperm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Young, multicellular, diploid sporophyte
-tough seed coat produced by sporophyte integuments
-seeds contain tissues from two sporophyte generations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Two paired nerve cords with several paired ganglia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-One of the 2 sperm cells fertilizes the egg to produce the diplod zygote
-other sperm fuses with 2 nuclei located in central cell
-produces endosperm by mitosis
-endosperm develops as a nutritive tissue, usually triploid chromosome number
-supplies nutritional needs for developing embryo
-rich in protein, lipid, carb, vitamins, and minerals
-nutrients in endosperm come from parent sporophyte by apoplastic support
-eudicot store nutrients from endosperm in cotyledons
-Monocots retain considerable endosperm in the mature seed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-composed of 2 or more kinds of tissues
-organ system-different organs work together to perform/regulate complex functions
-spatial arrangment-organ systems working together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Intracellular-inside cells
-Extracellular-outside cells
-These can be very different in solute composition |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-fluid transport systems designed for bulk transport within an animal's body
-closed circulatory system
-fluid (blood) pumped and kept to a certain extent within vessel system
-plasma-fluid portion of the blood
-blood cells suspended in plasma
-interstitial fluid-fluid between cels outside vessels
-open circulatory system
-fluid pumped but no distinction between pumped and interstitial fluid
-no blood cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Small molecules are often transported from area of digestion to animal's circulatory system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-any substance consumed by an animal that is needed for essential functions
-nutrients must be taken into the body
-nutrients may need to be digested
-can be used as chemical building blocks (amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, nucleotides) as cofactors/coenzymes (vitamins and minerals) |
|
|
Term
| ATP energy can be used for: |
|
Definition
1. Transport work-moves things across a membrane
2. Mechanical work-muscle fibers activated
3. Chemical work-biochemical synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-site of bile production
-bile contains bicarbonate ions (neutralize acids) and bile salts (emulsify fats) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ion rich fluids, released into small intestine
-proteins, fats, carbs, and nucleic acids digestion
-bicarbonate neutralizes acidic stomach chyme as it enters small intestine |
|
|
Term
| Length of small intestine |
|
Definition
-Herbivores have much longer intestine than carnivores
-Longer small intestine=more time for digestion of plant material
-Larger cecum houses cellulose-digesting microbes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -membrane proteins on the wall of the intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-many woody plants transport glucose from sugar-producing cells of the leaf, to companion cells and then to sieve-tube elements via plasmodesmata
-does not require ATP
-facilitated diffusion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-mature phloem tissues remain alive and retain at least some cytoplasmic components
-works under positive pressure
-composed of supporting fibers, parenchyma cells, sieve-tube elements, and adjacent companion cells
-phloem loading |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-companion cells play an essential role in conveying sugars to sieve-tube elements for long-distance transport
-sucrose (disaccharide) is used for long distance transport
-symplastic loading
-partial apoplastic loading |
|
|
Term
| partial apoplastic loading |
|
Definition
-partly apoplastic and partly transmembrane transport
-load sugar into sieve-tube elements or companion cells from intracellular spaces, often up a concentration gradient by active transport
-requires ATP to move sugar across a plasma membrane into a companion cell or sieve-tube element |
|
|
Term
| adaptations to reduce transpirational water loss |
|
Definition
1. Stomatal movements
-guard cells close
blue light stimulates active guard cell ion uptake
water flows in
cells expand
stomata closes
2. Leaf-abscission or leaf drop
prevents water stress
ethylene stimulates formation of abscission zone with separation layer and underlying protective area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-xylem parenchyma cells are alive
-thick-walled fibers may be alive or dead at maturity-provide structural support
-tracheids and vessel elements-specialized water-conducting cells, always dead and empty of cytosol when mature
-works under negative pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Loses its nucleus and most of the cytoplasm to reduce obstruction to bulk flow
-companion cell supplies mRNA and proteins to sieve tube element via plasmodesmata |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-source of sugars
-tissue that is producing and releasing sugar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-location where the sugars are being delivered to
-tissue that is actively taking up and storing sugar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -bulk transport from source to sink tissue |
|
|
Term
| Development of the mature male gametophyte |
|
Definition
1. pollen grain lands on stigma
2. stigma allows only appropriate genotype to germinate
3. pollen tube grows thru micropyle and delivers sperm to female gametophyte
4. results in double fertilization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Ernst Munch-German plant physiologist-1930
-sieve-tube elements near source tissues have comparatively high solute contents due to movement of sugars from source
-water tends to rush into them from adjacent xylem-hydrostatic (turgor) pressure
-vessel elements near sink tissue have lower solute concentration
-hydrostatic pressure (positive) overcomes reduced solute pressure and water moves into adjacent xylem |
|
|
Term
| source and sink tissue change during the seasonal cycle |
|
Definition
-Time of year when leaves are actively photosynthesizing-photosynthetic leaf mesophyll is main sugar source
-New growth, leaf formation-roots are main sugar source
-the "sink" changes throughout the year |
|
|
Term
| Multicellular life cycle stages |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Gamete-producing gametophyte generation
-Produces gametes by mitosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-spore-producing sporophyte generation
-produces spores by meiosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -A stem branch that produces reproductive organs instead of leaves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Vase-shaped structures that produce, enclose, and nurture female gametophytes and mature male gametophytes
-contain veins of vascular tisse that deliver nutrients from the parent sporophyte to the developing gametophytes
-Flower contains one or more carpels that form a pistil
-carpel composed of stigma, style, and ovary |
|
|
Term
| Types of Tissue Level Transport |
|
Definition
1. Transmembrane Transport
2. Apoplastic Transport
3. Symplastic Transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Export of a material from one cell into the intracellular space, followed by the import of the same substance by an adjacent cell
-movement of auxin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-endodermal plasma membrane possess specific channels and transporters for essential mineral nutrients
-root endodermis functions as molecular filter
-allows the passage of beneficial solutes that have entered from symplast or have been specifically transported into endodermal cytosol |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -produces and nourishes one or more ovules |
|
|
Term
| Early male gametophyte development |
|
Definition
-each microscopic nucleus undergoes mitosis to form a male gametophyte
-generative cell divides to produce 2 sperm cells
-tube cell will form pollen tube |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-movement of solutes thru cell wall material
-apoplastic spaces: continuum of water-soaked cell walls and intracellular spaces
-short distance transport
-mineral nutrient transport thru mineral outer tissue of roots
-moves soil, water, and dissolved minerals thru root epidermal and cortex tissues
-stops at root endodermis (barrier between root cortex and central cortex)
-casparian strips prevent apoplastic transport into root vascular tissue |
|
|
Term
| Water content of plant cells depends on: |
|
Definition
-Osmosis
-Turgor pressure-hydrostatic pressure that increases as water enters plant cells
-cell walls restrict the extent to which cells can swell |
|
|
Term
| Legume-Rhizobia Symbioses |
|
Definition
-Certain bacteria live in root cells of legumes
-Rhizobia can live independently but only fix nitrogen inside root nodules
-Nodules formation involves chemical signals between the rhizobia and host plant |
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Term
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Definition
-mixed input of multiple presynaptic cells
-many EPSPs generated at one time may sum up to threshold potential
-axon releases very rapidly
-multiple synapses firing at once
-IPSPs may negate EPSPs |
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Term
| Plant-Prokaryote Symbioses |
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Definition
-provide fixed nitrogen
-some bacterial symbiotes live within plant cells or tissues
-plants provide organic nutrients to bacteria
-bacteria supplies plants with more fixed nitrogen than they could get from soil |
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Term
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Definition
-about 90% of seed plants have fungal symbiotic associations
-fungi live within root tissues or envelop root surfaces
-fungi obtain organic food from plant while fungi supplies water and mineral nutrients
-very efficient way to harvest water and minerals from a larger volume of soil |
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Term
| Plant adaptations that allow for increased nutrient supply |
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Definition
1. highly branched roots
2. more or longer root hairs
3. fungal symbiotic associations
4. bacterial symbiotic associations
5. capture of animals by carnivorous plants
6. parasitic associations |
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Term
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Definition
-movement of a substance from the cytosol of one cell to the cytosol of an adjacent cell via plasmodesmata
-Symplast formed by all of a plant's cells and plasmodesmata
-Mineral nutrient transport thru outer tissues of roots
-only movement allowed in root vascular tissue |
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Term
|
Definition
-Microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls
-Transport occurs thru diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| -Cerebral ganglion highly developed in foot region (anterior) |
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Term
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Definition
-Same general plan as planarians
-more neurons, integrative center in anterior
-ventral nerve cords have ganglia in each segment |
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Term
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Definition
-Each ovule produces a single female gametophyte by mitosis of megaspore
-often possess 7 cells and 8 nuclei
-egg cell lies between 3 synergids
-located close to micropyle of ovule
-synergids help provide nutrients to female gametophyte
-3 antipodal cells
-central cell (often) has a nuclei |
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Term
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Definition
1. Pollen grain germinates by taking up water and producing a pollen tube
2. Pollen generative nucleus usually divides by mitosis to produce two sperm cells
3. Upon rehydration a pollen tube extends into the spaces between the cells of the style
4. To deliver sperm to egg cells, the tube must grow from the stigma, thru the style to the ovule |
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Term
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Definition
-Spore-producing structure enclosed in integuments=megasporangium
-diploid cell produces 4 megaspores by meiosis (3 die)
-surviving megaspore generates female gametophyte by mitosis |
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Term
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Definition
-Filament topped by anther
-Anther is a group of 4 microsporangia
-Diploid cells undergo meiosis producing 4 tiny haploid spores
-Produced by shoot apical meristems
-each male gametophyte (pollen grain) develops a tough outer wall
-Produce male gametophyte and foster early development
-During a later phase of development, a mature male gametophyte produces sperm cells |
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Term
|
Definition
-Produced by shoot apical meristems
-Function to protect unopened flower bud |
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Term
|
Definition
-Produced by shoot apical meristems
-Serve as attraction of pollinators |
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Term
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Definition
-Composed of single or multiple fused carpels
-Produced by shoot apical meristems |
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Term
| Conduction of action potentials |
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Definition
1. Na+ enters and thresholdl reached at axon hillock
2. Threshold potential triggers opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels in hillock region
3. Adjacent area becomes depolarized due to Na+ entry
4. Sequential opening of Na+ channels conducts a wave of depolarization from axon hillock to axon terminus
5. Temporary closing of inactivation gate of Na+ channels (refractory period) prevents backward conduction toward cell body |
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Term
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Definition
-dual nerve cords extend length of animal connected by transverse nerves
-two anterior ganglia
-ganglion-cluster of neurons perform basic integration functions |
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Term
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Definition
-nerve ring around mouth connected to larger radial nerves extending to arms
-starfish, sea urchins |
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Term
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Definition
-Nerve net
-diffused network of nerve axons communicating with each other-no central brain
-Simplest nervous system
-Jellyfish, hydrazoans, anemones |
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Term
|
Definition
-Immature mature gametophytes
-Develop from micropores |
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Term
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Definition
-A phase of metabolic slowdown at which the embryos and the seed coat have already fully matured, and have undergone drying.
-Fully mature, dormant seeds are ready to be dispersed. |
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Term
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Definition
| -The fruit wall that was once the ovary |
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Term
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Definition
-A flowering hormone
-"Flowering generator" |
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Term
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Definition
| -The four concentric rings that sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels occur in |
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Term
|
Definition
-The collective form for sepals
-Form the outermost whorl |
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Term
|
Definition
-The androecium
-In a third whorl |
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Term
|
Definition
-Gynoecium
-Form the innermost whorl |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -Contain: calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Lack one or more of the flower whorls |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Have both stamen and carpel |
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Term
|
Definition
-Flowers lacking stamens and carpels
-An imperfect flower that produces carpels is known as a carpellate flower or pistillate flower.
-Imperfect flowers that produce only stamens are described as staminate flowers. |
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Term
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Definition
-This process begins with an unequal cell division and proceeds through several distinctive stages
-Embryos develop from single-celled zygotes by mitotic divisions |
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Term
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Definition
| -The portion of an embryonic stem with two tiny leaves in a first bud that is located about the point of attachment of the cotyledons. |
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Term
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Definition
-The portion of an embryonic stem located below the point of attachment of the cotyledons.
-An embryonic root, the radicle, extends from the hypocotyl. |
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Term
|
Definition
| -A protective sheath that encloses the first bud of an epicotyl. |
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Term
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Definition
| -The protective envelope that encloses the young monocot root |
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Term
|
Definition
-The production of plant embryos from body (somatic) cells.
-Somatic embryos develop normally to the torpedo stage, but do not dehydrate and become dormant, as is normal for zygotic embryos.
-Rather somatic embryos produce root and shoot systems and develop into mature plants.
-Occurs naturally in citrus, mango, onion, and tobacco plants |
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Term
|
Definition
| -The study of animal structure |
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Term
|
Definition
| -The study of how animal structures function |
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Term
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Definition
| -Consist of cells that are specialized to contract, generating the mechanical forces that produce body movement, exert pressure on a fluid-filled cavity, or decrease the diameter of a tube. |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Insoluble fibrous proteins found in the proteins of extracellular matrix of tissues |
|
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Term
| Surface Area/Volume (SA/V) Ratio |
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Definition
| -The ratio between a structure's surface area and the volume in which the structure is contained |
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Term
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Definition
| -A change in the variable being regulated brings about responses that move the variable in the opposite direction. |
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Term
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Definition
-May accelerate a process and lead to an explosive system
-Contrary to the principle of homeostasis
-Has no obvious means to stop it |
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Term
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Definition
-An animal's body begins preparing for a change in some variable before it even occurs
-Example: A dog starts to salivate and its stomach begins to churn before it even gets the food. |
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Term
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Definition
| -The type of cellular communication in which molecules are released into the interstitial fluid and act on nearby cells |
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Term
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Definition
-Sift water, filtering out the organic matter and expelling the rest
-Both motile and nonmotile |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -A special type of vessel that occupies the center of each intestinal villus |
|
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Term
| Transepithelial transport |
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Definition
-The transport of substances from the lumen to the blood
-Occurs across a layer of epithelial cells |
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Term
|
Definition
-Disrupts the large lipid droplets into many tiny droplets
-Increases the rate of digestion
-The resulting suspension of small liquid droplets is called an emulsion.
-Requires mechanical disruption of the large fat droplets into smaller droplets and an emulsifying agent, which prevents them from recombining back into larger droplets. |
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Term
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Definition
-Large droplets coated with amphipathic proteins that perform an emulsifying function similar to that of bile salts
-Contain phospholipids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins that have been absorbed by the same process that led to fatty acid and monoglyceride movement into the epithelial cells of the small intestine. |
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Term
|
Definition
-Decrease of the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
-Can lead to vitamin and mineral deficiencies
-Example: Celiac Sprue-a common genetic disorder in humaans that results in a loss of intestinal surface area due to sensitivity to the wheat protein gluten. |
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Term
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Definition
| -The scientific study of nervous systems |
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Term
|
Definition
-When sodium ions move into the cell, the charge moves rapidly through the cytosol to the next node, where the action potential continues.
-The action potential seems to "jump" from one node to the next.
-Speeds up the conduction process because it takes less time for the action potential to travel from node to node rather than continuously along the length of the axon. |
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Term
|
Definition
-Can alter or modulate the response of the postsynaptic neuron to other neurotransmitters.
-Neuropeptides |
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Term
|
Definition
| -ligand-gated ion channels that open in response to binding of neurotransmitter molecule |
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Term
|
Definition
-G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
-Coupled to an intracellular signaling pathway that initiates changes in the postsynaptic cell. |
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Term
|
Definition
-MS
-begins in adulthood, normally between the ages of 20 and 50 in individuals with apparently healthy nervous systems.
-The person's body begins to attack and destroy myelin as if it were a foreign substance.
-These attacks leave multiple scarred areas of tissue in the nervous system and impair the function of myelinated neurons that control movement, speech, memory, and emotion. |
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Term
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Definition
| -The formation of an increasingly complex brain in the head that controls sensory and motor functions of the entire body |
|
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Term
| Triad Structure of the Brain |
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Definition
1. Hindbrain
2. Midbrain
3. Forebrain |
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Term
|
Definition
-Includes the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum
-Medulla oblongata coordinates many basic reflexes and bodily functions, such as breathing
-Cerebellum and pons are responsible for monitoring and coordinating body movements |
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Term
|
Definition
-Processes several types of sensory inputs, including smell, vision, and hearing
-Controls the coordination of eye movement with visual inspection of the environment |
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Term
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Definition
-Processes sensory inputs and consists of a group of structures that are responsible for the higher functions of conscious thought, planning, and emotion.
-Cerebrum
-Cerebral cortex-the surface layer
-Thalamus
-Hypothalamus |
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Term
|
Definition
-Surrounds the exterior of the brain and spinal cord and absorbs physical shocks to the brain resulting from sudden movements or blows to the head.
-Contains nutrients, hormones, and other substances that are taken up by cells of the brain, and the fluid is also a reservoir for waste products that are carried away by the circulatory system.
-Fills a series of connected cavities called the ventricles that lie deep within the brain and run along a central canal that lie deep within the brain and run along a central canal that extends the length of the spinal cord. |
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Term
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Definition
-Senses the external environmental conditions and control skeletal muscles
-Receive stimuli and transmit signals to the CNS |
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Term
|
Definition
-Visceral Nervous System
-Regulates homeostasis and organ function
-Regulates the rate of heart contradictions, blood pressure, and the amount of stomach acid secreted.
-Predominantly composed of motor neurons |
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Term
|
Definition
-Involved in maintaining and restoring body functions
-Neurons promote digestion and absorption of food from the gut, slow the heart rate, and decrease the amount of fuel supplied to the blood from the liver and adipose tissue. |
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Term
|
Definition
-One of the areas known to be critical for understanding and remembering emotional situations
-Involved in the ability to recognize emotional expression in others. |
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Term
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Definition
-Composed of several layers of cells that are connected together in a circuit.
-Establishes memories for spatial locations, facts, and sequences of events |
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Term
|
Definition
| -The layer that evolved most recently in mammals and has only six layers of cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Connects hemispheres of the cerebrum together |
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Term
|
Definition
-LTP
-long-lasting strengthening of the connection between neurons
-Occurs naturally in the hippocampus and can last for hours to days, and even years. |
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Term
|
Definition
-Occurs as a result of learning
-Connections caused by proteins allow the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells to communicate with each other more readily. |
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Term
|
Definition
-Open out of the utricle
-Detect rotational motions of the head
-The hair cells in the semicircular canals are embedded in a gelatinous cone called the cupula |
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Term
|
Definition
| -The process of contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles adjusting the lends according to the angle at which the light enters the eye |
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Term
|
Definition
| -A reflective layer of tissue located beneath the photoreceptors at the back of the eye |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Drainage of aqueous humor in the eye becomes blocked and the pressure inside the eye increases as the fluid level rises. |
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Term
|
Definition
-Photoreceptor cells in and around the fovea of the retina are lost.
-Associated with a loss of sharpness and color vision.
-Usually does not occur before the age of 60.
-Leading cause of blindness in the U.S., accounting for roughly 25% of all cases |
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Term
|
Definition
-Accumulation of protein in the lens, cloud the lens and cause blurring, por night vision, and difficulty focusing on nearby objects
-By the age of 65, 50% of individuals have one or more cataracts in either eye and this jumps to 70% by the age of 75. |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Usually caused by damage to the hair cells within the cochlea, although some cases result from functional problems in brain areas that process sound or in nerves that carry information to the brain from the hair cells. |
|
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Term
| Sliding Filament Mechanism |
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Definition
| -The way in which a muscle fiber actually shortens |
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Term
|
Definition
| -The sequence of events that occurs between the time when a cross-bridge binds to a thin filament and when it is set to repeat the process |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Fibers that contain numerous mitochondria and have a high capacity for oxidative phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| Three Major Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers |
|
Definition
1. Slow-oxidative fibers
2. Fast-oxidative fibers
3. Fast-glycolytic fibers |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Have low rates of myosin ATP hydrolysis
-Have the ability to make large amounts of ATP
-Used for prolonged, regular activity
-Long-distance runners have a high proportion of these fibers in their leg muscles. |
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Term
|
Definition
-Have high myosin ATPase activity
-Can make large amounts of ATP
-Do not fatigue quickly and can be used for long-term activities
-Suited for rapid actions |
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Term
|
Definition
-Have high myosin ATPase activity
-Cannot make as much ATP as oxidative fibers
-Source of ATP is glycolysis
-Best suited for rapid, intense actions, such as short sprints at max speed.
-Fatigue faster than oxidative fibers |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Have few mitochondria but possess both a high concentration of glycolytic enzymes and large stores of glycogen, the storage form of glucose. |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Muscles that bend a limb at a joint |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Muscles that straighten a limb |
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