Term
| Explain the influence of James Hutton and Charles Lyell on Darwinian evolutionary theory. |
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Definition
| Hutton and Lyell theorized that terrain formed and changed over a long period of time by way of slow, continuous processes (uniformitarianism). Their ideas suggested an old earth. |
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Term
| Explain the influence of Thomas Malthus on Darwinian evolutionary theory. |
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Definition
| Thomas Malthus' social theories asserted that the population would undergo a "struggle for existence" because of limited resources. This idea lead to the concept of natural selection or "survival of the fittest." |
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Term
| What are Charles Darwin's main evolutionary conclusions? |
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Definition
| Going far enough back in time, all species related through ancestral connections. Given unlimited resources, species would tend to grow exponentially with varying traits. Because resources are limited, the better-adapted organisms survive the weaker organism, resulting in slow changes within a species. Eventually one species can diverge into two or more species depending on the environmental factors. |
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Term
| What basic evolutionary concepts were developed by Lamarck? |
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Definition
| Organisms have the tendency to adapt and change in response to their environment. There is continuous line of descent from simple ancient organisms to more complex modern organisms. Organs or structures that are not used deteriorate while organs or structures that aid in survival are retained and strengthened. Adaptive changes in an organism are heritable (passed on to offspring). |
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Term
| Explain the idea of "natural selection." |
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Definition
| The idea of natural selection is the "survival of the fittest:" the idea that the stronger organisms of a species survive, while the weaker ones are unable to survive. |
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Term
| What are the key ideas of "the modern synthesis"? |
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Definition
| The "modern synthesis" combines Darwin's ideas with modern genetics research. It asserts that the natural variation that exists is caused by random changes in the genetic material of a species over time. If genetic changes promote an individual’s survival and/or ability to reproduce, natural selection may increase the prevalence of that trait in future generations. |
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Term
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Definition
| The fishapod is a supposed "transitional form" between two species (the fish and the tetrapod). |
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Term
| What do evolutionary theorists say about oysters? |
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Definition
| Evolutionary theorists have hypothesized the flatness of oyster shells is an evolutionary adaptation that did not exist 200 million years ago. They suggest that the oyster shells adapted for greater stability in strong water currents. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the geographical distribution of distinct and/or modern living species. |
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Term
| Define convergent evolution. |
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Definition
| When 2 distinct species (from different lineages) begin to show similar traits because they have adapted for similar environments. |
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Term
| What are the long snouts of anteaters and echidna and example of? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the different kinds of homologies used by evolutionary theorists to support theories of common ancestors? |
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Definition
| Anatomical (similar physical structures), developmental (similarities during embryonic stages), molecular (similarities in biochemical characteristics of cells), and genetic (2 genes derived from the same ancestral gene) |
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Term
| What is the known number of species? |
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Definition
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Term
| Explain the "morphological species concept." |
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Definition
| A species is determined based on similar physical characteristics. |
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Term
| Explain the "biological species concept." |
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Definition
| A species is determined based on its members' potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring but cannot successfully interbreed with members of other species. |
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Term
| Explain the "ecological species concept." |
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Definition
| A species is determined based on its unique ecological niche. |
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Term
| What is "habitat isolation"? |
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Definition
| A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because they are geographically separated. |
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Term
| What is "temporal isolation"? |
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Definition
| A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because they reproduce at different times of the day or year. |
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Term
| What is "behavioral isolation"? |
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Definition
| A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species do not interbreed because of behavioral differences that prevent mating, for example, differences in songs for birds. |
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Term
| What is "mechanical isolation"? |
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Definition
| A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because their genitalia are incompatible. |
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Term
| What is "gametic isolation"? |
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Definition
| A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because their gametes fail to unite successfully. |
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Term
| What is "hybrid inviability"? |
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Definition
| A post-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot produce successful offspring because the fertilized egg cannot progress past early embryonic stages. |
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Term
| What is "hybrid sterility"? |
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Definition
| A post-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot produce successful offspring because their offspring are sterile. (Mule) |
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Term
| What is "hybrid breakdown"? |
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Definition
| A post-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot produce successful offspring because, though the hybrids are viable and fertile, subsequent generations have genetic abnormalities. |
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Term
| Explain "allopatric speciation." |
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Definition
| When a species diverges because part of the species is geographically separated from another part. The change in environmental conditions causes one part of the population to adapt and form a new species. |
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Term
| Explain "sympatric speciation." |
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Definition
| Divergence that is proposed to occur when members of a species initially occupy the same habitat within the same and range. Involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the reproductive isolation of a group of individuals. |
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Term
| Define "alternation of generations." |
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Definition
| A sequence in a life cycle in which a haploid, gamete-producing phase is followed by a diploid, spore-producing phrase; the spores of the latter reinitiate the haploid phase. |
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Term
| What are the four essential processes in plant growth and development? |
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Definition
| Cell division, growth, cell specialization, and apoptosis |
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Term
| Describe the shoot system of a plant. |
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Definition
| Stems, branches, leaves and other organ systems. Produced by the shoot apical meristem. |
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Term
| What are the three types of primary meristems? |
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Definition
| Protoderm, procambium, ground meristem |
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Term
| What does the protoderm do? |
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Definition
| The protoderm generates the epidermis. |
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Term
| What does the procambium do? |
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Definition
| The procambium produces vascular tissues (primary xylem and phloem). |
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Term
| What does the ground meristem do? |
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Definition
| The ground meristem produces ground tissues (cortex, pith). |
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Term
| What are the secondary meristems and what do they do? |
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Definition
| The secondary meristems include the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. They surround the established stem of a plant and cause it to grow laterally (i.e. larger in girth/diameter). |
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Term
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Definition
| Stem cells remain undifferentiated but can produce new cells capable of differentiating into specialized tissues. |
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Term
| What are the two ways a plant can grow? |
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Definition
| A plant grows either by producing new cells or expanding existing cells. |
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Term
| What are the two main purposes for a plant's leaves? |
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Definition
1) Leaves are the plant's main photosynthetic system.
2) Leaves allow for gas exchange |
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Term
| What is the purpose of the waxy cuticle on the surface of a leaf? |
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Definition
The waxy cuticle helps protect the leaf from water loss.
It also serves to filter UV radiation and reduce microbe and animal attack. |
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Term
| What is the purpose of a leaf's trichomes? |
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Definition
| Trichomes offer protection from excessive light, ultraviolet radiation, extreme air temperature, or attack by herbivores. |
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Term
| What do a leaf's guard cells do? |
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Definition
| Guard cells regulate stomatal opening and closing. |
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Term
| Name some examples of "modified" leaves. |
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Definition
Tendrils
Tough scales that protect buds
Poinsetta “petals”
Cactus spines |
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Term
| List some of the purposes of a plant's stem. |
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Definition
Support for the plant body
Carries nutrients throughout plant (in vascular tissues)
Defense system to protect against predators and infection
Produce leaves, branches, and flowers
Hold leaves up
May function in storage and photosynthesis |
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Term
| Describe the function of xylem briefly. |
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Definition
| Xylem is primarily responsible for the transport of water and dissolved minerals from roots upward in plant body. |
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Term
| Describe the function of phloem briefly. |
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Definition
| Phloem is primarily responsible for the transport of organic nutrients (dissolved sugars) from leaves or roots to other areas of the plant (flow can occur in both directions, depending on time of year). |
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Term
| Briefly describe xylem cells. |
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Definition
Xylem is composed of:
Unspecialized parenchyma cells
Stiff fibers for structural support (sclerenchyma cells)
Tracheids and vessel elements (dead cells) that conduct water and dissolved minerals |
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Term
| Briefly describe phloem cells. |
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Definition
Phloem is composed of:
Sieve elements (living cells)
Companion cells (also living) aid sieve element function
Parenchyma cells
Supportive fibers |
|
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Term
| What is tree bark composed of? |
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Definition
Bark has two layers,
1) Outer bark (mostly dead cork cells from cork cambium)
2) inner bark (secondary phloem from vascular cambium) |
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Term
| What are some examples of modified stems? |
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Definition
Rhizomes (underground stems). Tubers (potatoes) and bulbs (onions, irises, tulips) are underground modified stems that store food.
Stolons (aboveground creeping stem) |
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Term
| How do you identify a root system's "zone of maturation." |
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Definition
| The presence of root hairs. |
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Term
| What kind of root system do eudicots typically have? |
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Definition
| Taproots (one main root with many branches) |
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Term
| What kind of root system to monocots typically have? |
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Definition
| Fibrous roots (no main root, many equivalent branches from base of stem) |
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Term
| What internal stimuli do plants respond to? |
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Definition
Electrical signals (action potentials: particularly important in rapid plant movements)
Chemical signals (hormones: control plant cell, tissue and organ development and allow plants to respond to environmental stimuli) |
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Term
| What external stimuli do plants respond to? |
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Definition
| Light, atmospheric gases (CO2 and water vapor), temperature, touch, wind, gravity, water, rocks, soil stimuli, herbivores, pathogens, organic chemicals from neighboring plants, beneficial or harmful soil organisms, agricultural chemicals including hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| Auxins are the “master” plant hormone. They influence plant structure, development, and behavior in many ways. |
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Term
| What practical uses do plant auxins have for humans? |
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Definition
| Plant auxins are used in seedless fruit production and to help prevent premature fruit drop. They can also be used as commercial rooting compound. By pinching topmost shoots, famers can alter new outgrowth resulting in bushy plants. |
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Term
| What did the experiments of Went and Briggs reveal about the role of auxins in phototropism? |
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Definition
| The auxin hormone is directly responsible for the way a plant grows toward light. |
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Term
| What is the role of the plant hormone "cytokinins"? |
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Definition
| Promotes cell division in plant shoots and roots. |
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Term
| What is the role of the plant hormone "gibberellins"? |
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Definition
| Influences various developmental processes including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering and leaf and fruit maturation and senescence (deterioration with age). |
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Term
| What is the role of the plant hormone "ethylene"? |
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Definition
| Stimulates or regulates the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, and the abscission (or shedding) of leaves. |
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Term
| What is the role of plant stress hormones? |
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Definition
| Help plants respond to environmental stresses such as flooding, drought, high salinity, cold, heat, and attack by microorganisms and herbivores |
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Term
| What are some examples of plant stress hormones? |
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Definition
Abscisic acid
Brassinosteroids
Salicylic acid (SA)
Systemin
Jasmonic acid
Nitric oxide (NO) |
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Term
| What is the advantage of a plant's structural barriers such as cuticles, epidermal trichomes, and outer bark? |
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Definition
| Structural barriers help to reduce infection and herbivore attack. |
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Term
| What happens when roots encounter rocks as they grow down? |
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Definition
| Due to "thigmotropism"--the plant's response to touch--the plant grows horizontally until it is free to grow downward again. |
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Term
| What is the grasping behavior of vine tendrils an example of? |
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Definition
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Term
| What do the terms "positively gravotropic" and "negatively gravotropic" mean? |
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Definition
| Positively gravotropic refers to the roots, which grow downward with the force of gravity. Negatively gravotropic refers to the shoots, which grow upward against gravity. |
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Term
| What are some examples of plan macronutrients? |
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Definition
| Nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur |
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Term
| What are some examples of plant micronutrients? |
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Definition
| Chlorine, iron, maganese, boron, zinc, sodium. copper, molybdenum, and nuckel |
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Term
| Why is water essential for plants? |
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Definition
1. As a nutrient, water is the source of most hydrogens and some oxygens in organic compounds
2. Water is important for metabolic biochemical reactions
3. Water serves as a solvent for other mineral nutrients
4. Water is the main transport medium in plants |
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Term
| What is "photoperiodism"? |
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Definition
| A plant's ability to measure and respond to light amounts and day length. |
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Term
| What are "cryptochromes"? |
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Definition
| Cryptochromes are blue light receptors that allow a young seedling to determine if there is enough light in the environment to allow photosynthesis. If there is not, the seedling will continue to elongate until it reaches light. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Phototroponin is the main blue-light sensor. It has two components: a protein that has a kinase domain and a flavin pigment molecule that can absorb blue light. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| A red and far-red-light receptor which influences many plant growth and developmental processes. |
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Term
| What are "long-day plants"? |
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Definition
| Long-day plants flower in the spring or early summer, when the night period is shorter than a defined period. |
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Term
| What are short-day plants? |
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Definition
| Short-day plants flower only when the night length is longer than a defined period, as in late summer, fall, or winter. |
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Term
| What are day-neutral plants? |
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Definition
| Day-neutral plants flower regardless of the night length as long as the day length meets minimum requirements for plant growth. |
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|
Term
| What is the shoot apical meristem? |
|
Definition
| The region where new root tissues of plants are produced. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A region of ground parenchyma located between the epidermis and vascular tissue of mature plant roots. |
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Term
| What does Carbon-14 radiometric dating rely on? |
|
Definition
1. The production of Carbon-14 in the upper atmosphere has been constant throughout earth's history.
2. The presence of organic material in sedimentary rock strata |
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Term
| What are the most common fixed forms of nitrogen? |
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Definition
| Ammonia, ammonium, and nitrate. |
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Term
| What is the haploid stage in plant growth? |
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Definition
| The Gametophyte/haploid stage produces gamete by mitosis. It is microscopic in flowering plants. |
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Term
| What is the diploid stage in plant growth? |
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Definition
| The sporophyte/diploid stage produces spores by meiosis. In flowering plants, this is the visible stage. |
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Term
| What is the function of a plant's fruit? |
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Definition
| Fruit is meant to enclose and protect the seed and aid in seed dispersal. |
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Term
| What is enclosed in a plant seed? |
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Definition
| The plant embryo is contained within the plant seed. |
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Term
| What are the three generalized types of meristems? |
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Definition
| Apical meristems, primary meristems, and secondary meristems |
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|
Term
| What kind of leaf venation is found in eudicots? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of leaf venation is found in monocots? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| From whence is primary vascular tissue derived? |
|
Definition
| Primary meristems (procambium) |
|
|
Term
| From whence is secondary vascular tissue derived? |
|
Definition
| Secondary meristems (vascular cambium) |
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Term
| What is the scientific "consensus" on the age of the earth? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How long ago was the proposed "Hadean Eon"? |
|
Definition
| 4.5 billion years ago. Supposedly prokaryotes developed around this time. |
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Term
| How long ago was the proposed "Archaean Eon"? |
|
Definition
| 3.8 billion years ago. Supposedly photosynthetic bacteria developed around this time. |
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Term
| How long ago was the proposed "Proterozoic Eon"? |
|
Definition
| 2.5 billion years ago. Supposedly multicellular eukaryotes developed around this time. |
|
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Term
| Explain the Calendar Day interpretation of creation. |
|
Definition
| The six days of creation where literal 24-hour days and took place in the exact chronological order described in the Bible. |
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|
Term
| Explain the Day-Age interpretation of creation. |
|
Definition
| The "days" indicated in Genesis one are actually undefined lengths of time, though they occurred in the order described. |
|
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Term
| Explain the Framework interpretation of creation. |
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Definition
| The creation narrative is to be understood literarily, not scientifically. The days may not be 24-hour and they may not have occurred in that order, because the narrative is arranged for poetic beauty not scientific accuracy. |
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Term
| Explain the Analogical Days interpretation of creation. |
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Definition
| "Days" is a metaphor for the rhythm of work and rest. Genesis' days may not be 24 hour, are probably not in chronological order, and may overlap with one another. |
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Term
| When was Darwin's "Origin of Species" published? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Why did Cuvier influence Darwinian evolution theory? |
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Definition
| Cuvier's idea of "catastrophism" established the assumption that fossil strata are a kind of record of the history of life. |
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|
Term
| Define "adaptive radiation." |
|
Definition
| When a single species evolves into an array of descendants that differ greatly in habitat, form, or behavior. |
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|
Term
| What are "pneumatophores"? |
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Definition
| A pneumatophore is an adaptive root that is directed upward to allow for gas exchange. |
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