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covenant bio 112 exam 2
terms/questions for exam 2
100
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/24/2012

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Term
Transmembrane transport
Definition
Export of a material from one cell into the intercellular space, followed by import of the same substance by an adjacent cell
(ex: movement of auxin)
Term
Symplastic transport
Definition
Movement of a substance from the cytosol of one cell to the cytosol of an adjacent cell via plasmodesmata
Term
Plasmodesmata
Definition
Microscopic channels which transverse the cell walls of plant cells
Term
Symplast
Definition
Formed by all of a plant's cells and plasmodesmata; connected cytoplasm
Term
Apoplastic transport
Definition
Movement of solutes through cell wall material spaces between cells
Short distance transport
Term
Apoplast
Definition
Continuum of water-soaked cell walls and intercellular spaces
Term
Casparian strips
Definition
Prevent apoplastic transport into root vascular tissues
Only allow symplastic movements
Term
Xylem loading
Definition
Large amounts of water enter the long-distance conducting cells of the xylem, carrying solutes along
Term
Bulk/mass flow
Definition
Mass movement of liquid caused by pressure, tension, gravity, capillary action, or a combination of these
Term
Movement of fluid in xylem and phloem
Definition
Xylem water flow driven upward by transpiration "pull" and root pressure "push"
Movement of phloem occurs from regions of high to low solute concentration
Term
Xylem parenchyma cells
Definition
Alive, not directly involved in long-distance transport
Term
Tracheids and vessel elements
Definition
Specialized water-conducting cells that are always dead and empty of cytosol when mature
Term
Tracheids
Definition
Long, narrow cells with slanted cell walls
Term
Vessel elements
Definition
Aligned in pipeline-like files known as vessels
Give greater capacity for bulk flow in flowering plants
Water moves faster through them than tracheids
Term
Use of water in photosynthesis
Definition
Formation of reduced carbon compounds
Term
Leaf abcission
Definition
Leaf drop; occurs to prevent water stress
Particularly valuable adaptation for desert plants/angiosperm trees
Term
Symplastic phloem loading
Definition
Many woody plants transport sucrose from sugar producing cells of the leaf to companion cells and then to sieve-tube elements
Does not require ATP; facilitated diffusion
Term
Partial apoplastic phloem loading
Definition
Load sugar into sieve-tube elements or companion cells from intercellular spaces, often up a concentration gradient by active transport
ATP must be used to move sugar across a plasma membrane into a companion cell or sieve-tube element
Term
Source
Definition
Tissue that is producing and releasing sugar
Term
Sink
Definition
Tissue that is actively taking up and storing sugar
Term
Translocation
Definition
Bulk transportation from source to sink tissue
Term
Diploid, spore-producing sporophyte
Definition
Produces spores by meiosis
Term
Haploid, gamete-producing gametophyte
Definition
Produces gametes by mitosis
Term
Sepals
Definition
Often function to protect unopened flower bud
Term
Petals
Definition
Usually serve in the attraction of pollinators
Term
Stamens
Definition
Produce male gametophyte and foster their early development
Term
Pistil
Definition
Composed of single or multiple fused carpels
Produce, enclose, and nurture female gametophyte and mature male gametophyte
Term
Microspore
Definition
At the time of dispersal, a two- or three-celled male gametophyte produced by mitotic division (enclosed in a pollen grain)
Term
Megaspore
Definition
Within ovule, four produced by diploid cell through meiosis (three die)
Surviving megaspore generates female gametophyte by mitosis
Term
Generative cell
Definition
Divides to produce 2 sperm cells
Term
Tube cell
Definition
Will form pollen tube
Term
Ovary
Definition
Produces and nourishes one or more ovules
Term
Ovule
Definition
Spore-producing structure enclosed in integuments
Term
Embryogenesis
Definition
The development of single celled zygotes by mitosis
Term
All animals share similarities:
Definition
1. Exchange materials with their surroundings
2. Obtain energy from organic nutrients
3. Synthesize complex molecules
4. Duplicate themselves (reproduce)
5. Detect and respond to signals in their immediate environment
Term
What is unique/distinct about animals in comparison to plants?
Definition
1. No cell wall (impacts on developmental events, tissue/organ structure)
2. No photosynthesis--acquisition of organic nutrients
3. Rapid, coordinated movements used in pursuit of food, or avoidance of predators
Term
Skeletal muscles
Definition
Attached to bone or exoskeleton for locomotion, voluntary control
Term
Smooth muscle
Definition
Surrounds hollow tubes and cavities for propulsion of contents, involuntary control
Term
Cardiac muscle
Definition
Only found in the heart, involuntary control
Term
Four types of animal tissues
Definition
1. Muscle
2. Nervous
3. Epithelial
4. Connective
Term
Nervous tissue
Definition
Initiates and conducts electrical signals from one part of the animal's body to another
Term
Muscle
Definition
Cells specialized to contract
Term
Three types of muscle tissue in higher animals
Definition
1. Skeletal
2. Smooth
3. Cardiac
Term
Epithelial tissue
Definition
Sheets of densely packed cells that cover the body or individual organs and line the walls of body cavities
Specialized to protect, provide selective permeability, secrete or absorb materials
Term
Connective tissue
Definition
Includes blood, adipose (fat), blood, cartilage, loose and dense connective tissues
Provides scaffold for attachment, protects and cushions, provides mechanical strength, and transmits mechanical forces
Term
Organs
Definition
Composed of 2 or more kinds of tissues, organized together to provide coordinated function(s)
Term
Organ system
Definition
Different organs work together to perform/regulate complex functions
Term
Two main types of body fluids
Definition
Intracellular fluid-inside cells
Extracellular fluid-outside cells
Term
Closed circulatory systems
Definition
Fluid (blood) is pumped, and kept to a certain extent, within vessel system
Plasma-fluid portion of blood
Blood cells suspended in plasma
Interstitial fluid-fluid between cells outside vessels
Term
Open circulatory systems
Definition
Fluid (hemolymph) pumped but no distinction between pumped fluid and interstitial fluid
Typically no blood cells
Term
Herbivores
Definition
Eat only plants
Term
Carnivores
Definition
Consume animal flesh or fluids
Term
Omnivores
Definition
Eat both plant and animal material
Term
Nutrients
Definition
Any substance consumed by an animal that is needed for survival, growth, development, tissue repair, or reproduction
Must be taken into the body or absorbed, may need to be digested
Term
Five categories of organic food molecules for complete nutrition
Definition
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, vitamins
Term
Essential amino acids
Definition
8 required by many animals (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine)
Cannot be synthesized by animal's own cells, are not stored
Term
Essential fatty acids
Definition
Needed for building fats, phospholipids, steroid hormones
Term
Gastrovascular cavity
Definition
Simple example of extracellular digestion
One opening is entry and exit
Epithelial lining secretes digestive enzymes-breaks down food into smaller particles or molecules, digestion of particles completed intracellularly
Term
Alimentary canal
Definition
Single elongated tube with entry and exit ends
Muscular action propels food in one direction through the system
Lined by epithelial cells that synthesize and secrete digestive enzymes and hormones
Term
Neurons
Definition
Cells in the nervous system that use electrical impulses to transmit signals to other cells/regions of the body
Term
Dendrites
Definition
Relatively short, fibrous (often multiple) extensions of the plasma membrane
May be single or branching
Transmit incoming electrical signals (propagating toward cell body)
Term
Axons
Definition
Longer fibrous extensions of the plasma membrane
Typically single, but can branch
Send electrical signals propagating outward from cell body
Terminal branches or nerve terminal at far end, axon hillock (base near cell body) at cell body
Term
Three general types of neurons
Definition
Sensory, motor, interneurons
Term
Sensory neurons
Definition
Detect stimuli from the outside world or internal body conditions
Act as sensory receptors or interact with sensory receptors
Afferent neurons-in vertebrates, transmit signals to the central nervous system (CNS, brain and spinal cord)
Term
Motor neurons
Definition
In vertebrates, send signals away from CNS (efferent neurons) to elicit response (muscle contraction or glandular secretion)
Term
Interneurons
Definition
Form interconnections between other neurons
Term
The Reflex Arc
Definition
Involves all three types of neurons; stimulus from sensory neurons sent to CNS, little or no interpretation, signal transmitted to motor neurons to elicit response
Term
Types of Glial cells
Definition
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, astrocytes, microglia, radial glia
Term
Astrocytes
Definition
Glial cells that provide metabolic support and protection
Term
Microglia
Definition
Glial cells that remove cellular debris
Term
Radial glial
Definition
Glial cells that form tracks for neuronal migration in embryos
Term
Depolarization
Definition
Cell membrane potential becomes less negative, inside of cell less negative relative to surrounding environment
Typically in neurons, gated channels open allowing Na+ to flow in and membrane potential becomes more positive
Term
Hyperpolarization
Definition
Cell membrane more polarized, cytoplasm of cell becomes more negative relative to surrounding environment
In neurons, can occur if K+ moves out of the cell, making the interior of the cell less positive
Term
Voltage-gated ion channels
Definition
Open and close in response to voltage changes
Term
Ligand-gated ion channels
Definition
Open and close in response to ligands (chemicals that bind to proteins) or chemicals
Term
Graded potentials
Definition
Small amplitude depolarized or hyperpolarization
Amplitude varies incrementally depending on strength of stimulus
Occur locally, spread across a short distance and die out
Term
Action potentials
Definition
Always the same, large-amplitude depolarization (cell membrane becomes positive)
All-or-none, either triggered or not
Actively propagated outward from initial location, "regenerative" (an action potential in one area of the membrane can invoke an action potential in an adjacent area)
Term
Synapse
Definition
Junction where nerve terminal meets a neuron, a muscle cell, or gland
Term
Electrical synapse
Definition
Ions flow freely through gap junctions from cell to cell; direct connection between pre- and postsynaptic cells
Term
Chemical synapse
Definition
Neurotransmitter acts as a signal from presynaptic to postsynaptic cell
Term
Ionotropic post-synaptic receptors
Definition
Ligand-gated ion channels open in response to neurotransmitter
Term
Metabolic post-synaptic receptors
Definition
G-protein coupled receptors initiate changes in postsynaptic cell
Term
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Definition
Brings membrane closer to threshold potential (opening of ligand-gated sodium channels)
Term
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Definition
Takes membrane farther from threshold potential (hyperpolarization, opening of ligand-gated potassium channels)
Term
Cnidarian nervous system
Definition
Nerve net, simplest nervous system-neurons connect to each other in a loose network
Term
Echinoderm nervous system
Definition
Nerve ring around the mouth connected to larger radial nerves extending to arms
Term
Platyhelminthes nervous system
Definition
Dual nerve cords extend length of animal, connected by transverse nerves; two anterior ganglia (clusters of nerves); perform basic integration functions
Term
Annelid nervous system
Definition
Same general plan as planarians; more neurons, "integrative center" in anterior, ventral nerve cords have ganglia in each segment
Term
Simple mollusk nervous system
Definition
Similar to annelids, two paired nerve cords with several paired ganglia
Term
Advanced mollusk nervous system
Definition
Cerebral ganglion highly developed
Term
Insect nervous system
Definition
Brain has several subdivisions with separate functions
Term
Central nervous system (CNS)
Definition
Brain and spinal cord
Term
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Definition
Neurons and axons of neurons outside the CNS (ganglia and peripheral nerves)
Term
Nucleus
Definition
Cluster of cell bodies of neurons involved in a similar function in the CNS
Term
Ganglion
Definition
Cluster of neuron cell bodies in PNS involved in a similar function
Term
Tract
Definition
Myelinated axons that run in parallel bundles in the CNS
Term
Nerves
Definition
Myelinated axons that run in parallel bundles in PNS
(Cranial nerves are connected directly to the brain, spinal nerves run from various locations in the body to the spinal cord)
Term
Sensory transduction
Definition
Incoming stimuli (chemical or physical from an animal's body or external environment)are converted into neural signals
Term
Perception
Definition
Conscious awareness of sensations
Not all sensations are consciously perceived by an organism
Term
Sensory receptor
Definition
Recognizes stimulus and initiates signal transduction by creating graded potentials in the same or adjacent cells (either neurons or specialized epithelial cells)
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