Term
| What is the Natural (background) Extinction Rate? |
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Definition
Fossil records show species last 1-10 million years. After that:
-go extinct or speciate
-Then if species last 1 million years: year extinction rate= 1/1,000,000 or 0.000001
-Or if species last 10 million years yearly ext. rate = 1/10,000,000 or 0.0000001 |
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Term
| What is the observed extinction rate? |
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Definition
1% per century or 0.01 every 100 years.
0.0001
This is much higher than the background rate. |
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Term
| What is extinction according to Darwin? |
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Definition
-low population numbers taken to extremes
-explicit connection between low population numbers and extinction |
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Term
What is a Minimum viable population (MVP)?
Scaffer: |
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Definition
| Shaffer (1981): “An MVP for any given species in any given habitat is the smallest isolated population having a 99% chance of remaining extant for 1000 years despite the foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental, genetic stochasticity, and natural catastrophes” |
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Term
| What is a Minimum viable population (MVP)? |
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Definition
-varies by taxon
-vertebrates: 500-5000 individuals (Russ Lande)
-invertebrates: ~10,000
-annual plants: ~10,000 |
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Term
| What is the Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA)? |
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Definition
Area of habitat required to support MVP
-can be estimated by studying the home range size of individuals and colonies of endangered species.
-estimated that reserves in africa of 100 to 1000km^2 needed to preserve small mammal populations
-large carnivores(lions) require 10000km^2.
Exceptions nowithstanding, large populations are needed to protect most species and species with small populations are in real danger of going extinct. |
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Term
Attempts to document MVP: Plants
From: Matthies et al. 2004
Oikos 105: 481-488 |
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Definition
-Pool of data over eight studies: Data for populations with less than six flowering plants pooled to achieve suffient sample size.
-one population was pooled with the next smallest class. |
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Term
Attempts to document MVP: Plants
From: Matthies et al. 2004
Oikos 105: 481-488
-What does it all mean? |
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Definition
Showed a positive correlation between sample size and the portion surviving.
Results: Largest sample showed 100% survival, whereas lowest showed 45% survival. |
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Term
Attempts to document MVP:
Bighorn Sheep |
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Definition
The relationship between initial population size of sheep and the percentage of populations that persists over time.
-almost all populations with more than 100 sheep persisted beyond 50 years.
-populations with fewer than 50 individuals died out within 50 years.
-not included were small populations that were actively managed/augmented by the release of additional animals. |
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Term
| What are the problems for small populations? |
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Definition
-Loss of genetic variability
-Demographic fluctuations
-Environmental fluctuations (e.g. food supply, catastrophes) |
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Term
What are the problems for small populations?
-Loss of genetic variability and related problems of inbreeding depression and genetic drift. |
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Definition
-In small populations: allele frequencies change by chance (based on whichever reaches sexual maturity instead of the overall most fit)-genetic drift.
-Genetic drift: Loss of alleles by chance. Alleles at low frequencies may not survive to next gen.
-New alleles added by mutation, migration.
-Mutation rates typically low: 1/10,000 to 1/1,000,000 mutations per gene per generation.
-Small populations will have problems with genetic variability |
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Term
What are the problems for small populations?
-Demographic fluctuations due to random variations in birth and death rates |
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Definition
Also known as environmental stochasticity: Variation in population seize due to random variation in reproduction and mortality rates.
-populations size may fluctuate over time due to changes in the enivronment or other factors without approaching a stable value.
-When population drops below 50, population seize fluctuates randomly up or down (Menges)
-The smaller the population, the greater the effect of demographic variation.
-Small populations may be unstable due to the inability of the social structure to function once the population falls below a certain size (allele effect) |
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Term
What are the problems for small populations?
-Environmental fluctuations due to variations in predation, competition, disease, and food supply; and natural catastrophes that occur at irregular intervals, such as fires, floods, storms or droughts |
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Definition
Also known as environmental stochasticty: random variations in biological and physical environment.
-cause variation in population size of species.
-natural catastrophes that occur at irregular intervals. |
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Term
Effective population size
-Wright |
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Definition
-Formula to express the proportion of original heterozygosity remaining after each genration (H) for a population of breeding adults, which constitutes the effective population size (Nsube)
Nsube: the size of population as estimated by the number of breeding individuals
H= 1-1/[2Nsube]
H: shows the percent of population retaining it's original heterozygosity after 1 generation
The proportion of heterozygosity remaining after t generations (Hsubt):
Hsubt = H^t. |
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Term
| How does genetic variability increase if according to Wright's formula, genetic heterozygosity decreases every successive generation? |
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Definition
| Regular mutations and migration of even a few individual for distand populations. |
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Term
| What happens if species is in isolate? |
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Definition
| No migration occurs, so genetic variability due to mutations |
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Term
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Definition
Provides genetic variability even in low numbers can offset genetic drift.
Mills and Allendorf
Genetic variations that increase fitness tend to remain in successive populations.
Migration |
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Term
| Genetic Variability: Populations size in populations of Halocarpus bidwilli |
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Definition
The level of genetic variability if directly correlated with population size in populations of Halocarpus Bidwilli. This pattern holds true for the percentage of genes that are polymorphic as well as for the mean number of alleles per gene and level of heterozygosity. population size varies between 10(10^1) and 1 million(10^6)
-Genetic variance increases with population size. |
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Term
| How many individuals to maintain genetic variance? |
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Definition
Animal breeders say:
-2-3% H loss/generation can still sustain population.
-50 breeding individuals for short-term
Drosophila researchers say
-500 (but this hopeful estimate depends on some amount of mutation to help counter loss of genetic variability)
These two figures together: the 50/500 rule:
-Ne of 50 is required to prevent an unacceptable rate of inbreeding, while a long-term Ne of 500 is required to ensure overall genetic variability. |
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Term
|
Definition
Mating amongst close relatives.
Usually have a variety of mechanisms preventing inbreeding in natural populations: Outbreeding (do not breed with relatives)
-Can cause loss of fitness due to low genetic variability.
-offspring mortality ( 33% higher mortality.)
-weak or fewer offspring
-offspring with low breeding success
Deleterious effects build up.
Severe problem in zoo populations |
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Term
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Definition
Isolated populations need at least 50 individuals and preferably 500 individuals to maintain genetic variability.
Rule has been questioned by Lande (1995) who suggest taht beneficial mutation rates may be lower than previously reported. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lower fitness resulting from inbreeding. |
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Term
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Definition
Mating between different species/populations:
-occurs when a species is rare or its habitat is damaged.
A condition that results in weakness, sterility or lack of incompatibility of chromosomes and enzyme systems inherited from different parents:
-when pop. numbers low, will attempt to breed with other species: horses+ donkeys = mules (sterile) |
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Term
Inbreeding depression:
Percentage of increase in juvenile mortality of an inbred populations above that of a noninbred population vs. number of populations |
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Definition
A high degree of inbreeding (such as matings between mother and son, father and daughter, brother and sister) results in a "cost of inbreeding"
-Graph showed increase slight increases in mortality in higher inbred populations. |
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Term
Outbreeding Depression:
Spotted Owl |
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Definition
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Term
Outbreeding Depression:
Dusky Seaside Sparrow |
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Definition
| Scientists brought indiv. from another subspecies of seaside sparrow: breeding unsuccessful. |
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Term
Outbreeding Depression:
Ibex |
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Definition
Slovakia pop. extinct, scientists brought indiv. from Austria, Turkey & Sinai). Managed to breed, but had young in winter – didn’t survive.
-Outbreeding depression by pairing of individuals form the extremes of the speies' geographic range. |
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Term
| Why is outbreeding depression less of a concern than inbreeding depression? |
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Definition
| Studies of animals have failed to demonstrate outbreeding depression or have even observed hybrid vigor, suggesting that for animals, outbreeding depression is less of a concern. |
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Term
| Effective population size |
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Definition
The size of the population as estimated by the number of its breeding individuals.
-Determined by: sex ratio, variation in reproductive output, pop. fluctuations & bottlenecks. |
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Term
Effective population size:
Nsube = [4(Nsubm × Nsubf )]/(Nsubm + Nsubf) |
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Definition
-Shows the effect of unequal number of breeding males and females on Nsube
-Nsubf: number of breeding females
-Nsubm: number of breeding males |
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Term
Effective population size:
Graph:
-Ration of breeding males: females vs. effective population size. |
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Definition
-Shows that effective population (Nsube) close to 100% at 50:50. males:females.
-96%@40:60
-84%@30:70
-64%@20:80
-36%@10:90 |
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Term
Other factors affecting small populations:
-Demographic variation
-environmental variation
# of acorns per year (North American Oaks): Liebhold et al. |
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Definition
| Shows that number of acorns vary dramatically every year due to demographic and environmental variations. |
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Term
| The Ngorongoro Crater lion population crashed in 1962 |
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Definition
Crater lion population consisted of 90 individuals 1961 before crashing in 1962.
Small population size, isolated location, lack of immigration and impact of disease resulted in the loss of genetic variation caused by a population bottleneck.
Crashes due to disease in 40 individuals and 20 adults. |
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Term
| Black footed ferret pop. numbers |
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Definition
Changes in size of last known wild population of black-footed ferret, reflecting both demographic and environmental stochasticity.
-population cyclic, crashed in 1985. |
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Term
Effects of three variables on the probability of extinction of a population of the Mexican palm
-starting population of palm vs. probability of extinction. |
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Definition
The effects of demographic variation, low environmental variation and moderate environmental variation on the probability of extinction.
In this study, the MVP size was defined as the population seize at which there is less than 5% change of the population going extinct within 100 years.
Showed: environmental variation substantially increases extinction even in populations showing positive population growth. |
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Term
| What needs to be known about to species for effective species management? |
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Definition
-Environment
-Distribution
-Biotic interactions
-Morphology
-Physiology
-Demography
-Behavior
-Genetics
-Human interactions |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Environment |
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Definition
-Habitat species found
-Area used of habitat
-Environmental variables in time and space
-Catastrophies?
-How have human activities affected the environment. |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Distribution |
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Definition
-Where are species found in habitat?
-Clustered, random or spaced individuals?
-Migration
-Efficiency of colonization
-How have human activities affected distribution of species. |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Biotic interactions |
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Definition
-Types of food/other resources needed and how obtained?
-Competition from others for resources
-What predators or paracites effect population size
-Mutualists (pollinators, dispersers) interactions
-Dispersal by self or with aid
-How have human activities altered the relationships among species in the community? |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Morphology |
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Definition
-Species look like
-Function of parts
-Does morph change over geographic environment
-Do all individuals look same? |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Physiology |
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Definition
-Food/water/minerals/necessities needed to survive/grow reproduce?
-Efficiency of using resource
-vulnerability to extremes of climiate
-when reproduction, and need special requirements? |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Demography |
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Definition
-Current population size/past population size?
-are numbers stable/increase/decrease?
-Does the population of a mixture of individuals? |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Behavior |
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Definition
-How do the actions of an individual allow it to survive in its environment?
-how do individuals in population mate and produce offspring
-intereaction:cooperative/competition |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Genetics |
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Definition
-how much variation in morphology/physiology/behavioural characteristics?
how much variation is genetically controlled?
what percentrage of the genes is variable?
-How many alleles does the population have for each variable gene?
- |
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Term
What needs to be known about to species for effective species management?
-Human interactions |
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Definition
How do human activities impact species?
Do people harvest/use species
what do local peoples know about species? |
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Term
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Definition
| To learn the status of a species of special concern, scientists must census its population in the field and monitor it over time and space. |
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Term
Monitoring
-Over time, over space:
Number of Birds vs. year |
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Definition
Shows bird population increasing and decreasing over a span of 1975-1995
-Long term census records can help to distinguish long term trends from short term fluctuations |
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Term
Monitoring
-Over time, over space:
Frogs |
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Definition
Show historical vs. current distribution maps.
Frogs now dominate. |
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Term
Monitoring
-Over time, over space:
Demographic Studies |
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Definition
-monitor age/class popualtion or size/class population distribution.
Show the class fluctuations overtime. |
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Term
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Definition
| Range from making a complete count of every individual to estimating populations size using sampling methods. |
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Term
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Definition
| Show the response of a population to a change in its environment |
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Term
|
Definition
Following known individuals in a population to determine growth/reproduction/survival.
-All individuals included in the study, but study subsample or whole sample.
-ID critical stages in life.
-used to formulate life histories. |
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Term
| Population viability analysis (PVA) |
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Definition
Estimates how management efforts such as reducing or increasing hunting/protected area has on probability of extinction.
Risk assessment, extension of demographic analysis.
-use math to predict probability of extinction.
-Model to predict probability of extinction over a particular time period
-Uses average rates of birth, mortality
-Also current age (or size) distribution
-More complex models incorporate variable mortality, variable birth (which represent species’ responses to variable environment)
-Also: random catastrophe occurrence |
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Term
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Definition
Begins by constructing a mathematical model of the population or species of concern (deterministic model) .
-Other variables added to better model population. |
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Term
PVA
-Assumptions: 5% yearly growth rate 2% yearly probability of catastrophe |
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Definition
Graph showing a model of population growths with with 5% yearly growth and 2% probability of catastrophe each year.
Showed that larger populations(older populations) has a better chance of surviving a catastrophe. Chance of surviving two catastrophes in short time is low. |
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Term
|
Definition
A group of populations, separated in space
-over time a population of species may become locally extinct while new populations may form nearby on other suitable sites.
-Metapopulations can be shorted lived can distributions can change within every generation.
-Even infrequent colonization and migration can impact founder effects, genetic drift and gene flow of species. |
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Term
Metapopulation
-Source population & sink populations |
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Definition
-Core population (stable numbers) with sink populations that fluctuate with arrival of immigrants.
-populations in satellites may become extinct, but are repopulated by source. |
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Term
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Definition
| Three independant populations without interaction. |
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Term
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Definition
| Simple metapopulation of three interacting populations |
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Term
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Definition
| Metapopulation with a large core population and three satellite populations |
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Term
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Definition
| Metapopulation with complex interactions. |
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Term
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Definition
-Most funding agencies fund on 5 year cycles (or less)
-LTER network (www.lternet.edu) conducts studies on months-to-centuries timescales |
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Term
| Longer timescales necessary to detect some phenomena |
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Definition
-Monitoring of populations need to be combined with monitoring of other parameters:
-environment:temperature, rainfall, humidity, soil acidity, etc)
-community characteristics: species present, amount of biomass present at trophic level, etc |
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Term
Longer timescales necessary to detect some phenomena
eggs and rainfall |
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Definition
| The amount of rainfall effect the number of eggs hatched or if the eggs will hatch at all. |
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Term
| Long term ecological research (LTER sites in the US) |
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Definition
| -determine health of ecosystem by measuring environmental characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| EMAN (Ecological Monitoring & Assessment) |
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Term
| Box 13.1 (p. 295: wolf reintroduction) |
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Definition
-Ultimate goal of conservation is to restore damage to ecosystem to previous balanced functional state.
-Wolves extinct in Yellowstone National Park, caused growth in population of elk/herbs that damaged vegetation.
-caused starvation in times scarcity.
-Wolves reintroed into yellwostone
-opposition against: destory livestock, reduce game, ability to use federal land
-Wolves held in pens to break homing
-Wolves did well.
-Elk/herbs behaviour changed, kills little livestock, farmers compensated. |
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Term
| In situ (‘in situation’) conservation |
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Definition
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Term
| Ex situ (removed from the situation) |
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Definition
zoos, game farms, aquaria, botanical gardens, seed banks
Limitations:
-population size: cannot maintain enough to prevent genetic drift.
-adapation:undergo adaption to artificial environment
-Learning skills: ignorant of their natural environment, unable to survive in the wild.
-Genetic variability:populations limited, limited gene pool
-continutity: need continuous supply of funds and support policies.
-concnetration: conservation efforts in a single place, one catastrophe wipe out.
-Surplus animals: some species breed to easily in captivity. What is the ethical thing to do? |
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Term
| Concerns with Ex situ conservation |
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Definition
| Cost! Luangwa Valley, Zambia: elephants and rhinos could be stabilized only at an annual anti- poaching budget of over US$200/ha (Leader- Williams and Albon 1988). Ended with rhinos & elephants in heavily defended |
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Term
| How many species are maintained at the Toronto Zoo? |
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Definition
~500 animal species
~$5 million worth of plants…! |
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Term
| Whooping crane distribution & behavior |
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Definition
Whooping cranes are protected by US endangered species act and are intensively managed. Here captive born juvenile cranes are taught to forage and fly by a crane expert in a whooping crane costume. The birds will eventually join a flock in the wild without ever having seen an unmasked human.
Distribution of the whooping crane: Showed gradual increase in distribution from Canada (breeding ground) to America(wintering area) along migration route prior to 1850.
-ALmsot extinct. |
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Term
|
Definition
Goals:
Re-introduction
Augmentation
-often using advances in medicine to increase reprod. rates:
-cross-fostering: take eggs and give to another bird to foster. Original bird will grow another egg
-artificial incubation: humans may take care of young at vulnerable stage because mother won't
-artificial insemination: when lose interest in mating, female inseminated when comes into breeding condition (naturally or chemically induced).
-embryo transfer:successful in few rare aniamls (bongo, gaur), produce multiple eggs by fertility drugs, extra eggs collected by surgery, fertilized and surgically implanted into surrogate mother.
-Methods are expensive.
Hold until conditions improve
-need to save invertebrate as well as vertebrates. |
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Term
Zoo populations often plagued with problems of small pops: extensively inbred
Przewalski’s horse pedigree |
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Definition
Matings amongst close relatives common. Endline shows that may not be able to produce offspring.
How to change? Use database to track genetic lineages.
Avoid inbreeding as part of survival plan. |
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Term
Successes & failures in captive breeding
-California condor |
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Definition
-Captive breeding is helping to save the California condor.
-The condor once ranged from British Columbia to Mexico, but by 1978 the wild population was down to about 30 birds
-Captive breeding was initiated in 1983 (there were only 9 birds by some accounts) and by 1993 the captive breeding population was 60 birds.
-Captive-bred birds were released in California and Arizona and were found to use the same roosting sites, bathing pools, and mountain ridges as their predecessors.
-As of 2003 there were 81 wild condors in California and Arizona. |
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Term
| Captive breeding success: golden lion tamarin |
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Definition
-maintain a demographically secure population of sufficient size and distribution to minimize the effects of demographic variation, environmental variation, catastrophes and genetic erosion on the viability of the population
-maintain 90% of expected heterozygosity for 100 years.
-provide sufficient animals to meet the demands of the reintroduction program (goal: 2-5 pairs per year)
-meet the needs of zoos participating in the captive breeding program |
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Term
| Golden lion tamarin (1995 data) |
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Definition
-Shows captive animal populations (dip in 88) increasing as well as the number of instituions in program year by year.
-majority in NA and Europe. |
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Term
| Golden lion tamarin pop. (wild pop.) |
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Definition
-1970: 200 (Koebner 1994)
-1973: No more than 400 (Nowak & Paradiso 1983)
-1977: 100 - 200 (Kleiman 1981)
-1980: Less than 100 (Burton & Pearson 1987)
-1984: No more than 200 (Hatton et al. 1984)
-1987: About 400 (Mittermeier 1987)
-1990: 450 (excluding re-introduced, captive-born animals) (Seal et al. 1990)
-1994: A little over 500 (Rylands et al. 1997)
-1998: Over 800 (including 300 surviving as a result of the reintroduction program) (Entwistle & Dunstone 2000)
-2002: About 1000 (Ballou & van Roode 2002)
-2003: More than 1000 (IUCN 2003a) |
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Term
| Golden lion tamarin distribution |
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Definition
17 subpopulations
-Fazanda Uniao: Translocated population
-paco das anta reserve: wild population
-several areas with reintroduced populations
-shows trans/reintro habitats bigger than wild habitats. |
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Term
Arctic Seed Vault, Svalbard
-International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources |
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Definition
-established to preserve a wide variety of plant seeds from locations worldwide in an underground cavern
-provide insurance against the loss of seeds in genebanks
-Researchers, plant breeders and other groups wishing to access seed samples cannot do so through the seed vault; instead they must request samples from the depositing genebanks. The samples stored in the genebanks will, in most cases, be accessible in accordance with the terms and conditions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,[9] approved by 118 countries/Parties. |
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Term
| Crop species show high diversity in certain areas of the world |
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Definition
| Often only one variety of a crop known as a ‘landrace’ is resistant to certain diseases and pests….eg. varieties of maize. GMOs can shrink genetic variability |
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Term
| Pygmy Seahorse Hippocampus bargibanti |
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Definition
Found in the western Central Pacific
-coloured the same as Gorgonian (Muricella) corals
-known to occur only on gorgonian corals of the genus Muricella, and has evolved to resemble its host. |
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Term
| Cross-fostering’ in Zoos (ex- situ) |
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Definition
-When Hurricane Hannah (2008) separated two white tigers from their mother, Anjana the chimp came to the Rescue
-Anjana, a chimp at TIGERS (the institute of greatly endangered and rare species) in South Carolina, became surrogate mom and playmate to the cubs, even helping with bottle feeding
-This is something Anjana does all the time, having helped raised leopard and lion cubs on several occasions |
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Term
| Establishing Protected Areas |
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Definition
Protected Area: an area of land/seas especially dedicated to protection and maintenance of biological diversity.
-momentum to create areas increased, 80% of protected areas created since 1962.
-12.5% of earth protected.
-23% of land is managed for sustained resource production. |
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Term
| Why we might set protected areas |
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Definition
-Distinctiveness (of the biota)
-Endangerment (of the biota)
-Utility (usefulness of the biota to us)
-Ultimate goal: protection of the biota
-IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION |
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Term
| IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION |
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Definition
-Strict Nature reserves and Wilderness areas
-national parks
-national monuments/landmarks
-managed wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves
-protected landscapes and seascapes
-managed resource protected areas. |
|
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Term
IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
-Strict Nature reserves and Wilderness areas |
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Definition
| -protect in a relatively undisturbed state in order to represent example of biological diversity for scientific study. |
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Term
IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
-national parks |
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Definition
-areas of scenic/natural beauty of national/international importance.
-maintained for scientific, recreational, educational use
-usually not used for commercial extraction.
-3383 sites covering 4 001 463km^2 |
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Term
IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
-national monuments/landmarks |
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Definition
areas designed to preserve unique natural areas of national interest
-2122 sites covering 193 022km^2 |
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Term
IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
-managed wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves |
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Definition
| -Like nature reserves but need human manipulation to maintian characteristics of community |
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Term
IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
-protected landscapes and seascapes |
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Definition
| Land with coast and seas where interaction of people and nature over time has produced ditinct character is significant esthetic, ecological and cultural value. |
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Term
IUCN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
-managed resource protected areas. |
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Definition
| Areas allowed for sustained production of natural resources. |
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Term
|
Definition
Few areas. Needed along the coasts where most productivity is.
-MPAs are defined areas where natural and/or cultural resources are given greater protection than the surrounding waters. In the U.S., MPAs span a range of habitats including the open ocean, coastal areas, inter-tidal zones, estuaries, and the Great Lakes. They also vary widely in purpose, legal authorities, agencies, management approaches, level of protection, and restrictions on human uses.
-Increasing impacts on the world's oceans and Great Lakes, caused by development, pollution, overfishing, and natural events, strain the health of our coastal and marine ecosystems. Some of these impacts can include decreased or damaged fish populations, bleached corals, threatened or endangered species, or limited job opportunities. MPAs are one type of ocean management tool that, when used effectively, help ensure healthy oceans. They may also protect historic artifacts such as shipwrecks that could otherwise be damaged by handling or theft. |
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Term
| Problems with marine protected areas |
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Definition
-Organisms moving in and out
-marine organisms less well-known than terrestrial organisms:
-more guesswork
-Difficult to police
-Canada’s first marine protected area: 2003, Endeavor hydrothermal vents zone in the Juan de Fuca strait |
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Term
|
Definition
In no-take reserves:
-commercial species show increasing abundance over time
-up to one-third of species appear to be negatively affected by marine protection
-effects of increased abundance more pronounced at upper trophic levels |
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Term
| Growth of protected area system and total area encompassed in protected areas |
|
Definition
| -Area of sites as well as the number of sites has increased since 1872 (0km,0) to 2003 (18 000 000km, 10 000) |
|
|
Term
| Amounts of land in protected areas in different countries |
|
Definition
-Germany: 25%
-Austria: 25%
-UK: 19%
-Russia: 1.2%
-Greece: 0.8%
-Turkey: 0.3%
-Only 6% of Earth’s surface area is strictly protected! |
|
|
Term
| Which areas should be protected? |
|
Definition
-Hot spots:high biodiversity:
-along coasts, tropical forests, island groups (madagascar)
-other ecosystems.
-Distinctiveness/irreplaceability: area that is compose of rare endemic species
-Endangerment/vulnerability:species in danger of extinction
-utility: species that have present or potential value to people. |
|
|
Term
| How should Reserves be designed? |
|
Definition
-Representation: should contain as many aspects of biodiversity (species, populations, habitats) as possible
-resilancy: must be sufficiently large and well managed to maintain all aspects of biodiversity to ensure the long term existance of the unit in the face of uncertainties
-reality: there must be sufficient funds and political will to acquire and subsequently manage the protected areas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-How large must nature reserves be:
-Is it better to have a single large reserve or many smaller reserves?
-How many individuals of an endangered species must be protected in the reserve to prevent extinction.
-When several reserves are created, should they be close together of far apart and should they isolated from one another or connect by corridors.? |
|
|
Term
| Fifteen tropical rain forest hot spots of high endemism and significant threat of imminent extinctions |
|
Definition
-Polynesia and Micronesia
-Mesoamerica
-Ecuador
-Tropical Andes
-Caribbean
-Guinean Forests
-Atlantic Forests (Eastern Brazil)
-Eastern Mountain forests of Kenya and tanzania
-Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands
-Sri Lanka
-Western Ghats
-Indo-Burma
-Philippines
-Wallacea
-Sundaland
-New Caledonia |
|
|
Term
| Peaks of species richness in the US |
|
Definition
-Peaks of species richness in the US calculated by index that gives extra weight to rare species
-Hawaiian Islandsd not show, gave the greatest concentration of rare species
-Rare species found on florida panhandle, Carolinas, California. |
|
|
Term
| Percent of biome area converted to other uses, and that of the area protected from conversion |
|
Definition
-Analysis of 13 major terrestrial biomes lined by their structure and characteristics of vegetation, each of which supports unique biological communities.
-The area converted to other uses can vary considerably.
-Greatest priotiy for conservation is increasing the area for temperate grasslands, Mediterranean forests and tropical dry forsests:
-under significant threat and only a small percentage of their area is protected.
-Lowest priority for new protected areas would be tundra, boreal, montane grasslands |
|
|
Term
Percent of biome area converted to other uses, and that of the area protected from conversion
-Raw data |
|
Definition
C:P (converted:protected)
Temp. grasslands: 10:1
Med. forrest 8:1
Tropical dry forests 6:1
[...]
Montane grasslands 1:2
Temperate conifer 1:2
BOreal 1:4
Tundra 1:40 |
|
|
Term
| Gap analysis: adding areas to an existing network |
|
Definition
-linking new protected areas to reserves networks
-way to determine the effectiveness of ecosystems and community conservation programs.
1. data compiled on speices/ecosystems/physical features of region (conservation unites). Human densitites and economic factors can also be included.
2.Conservation goals are IDed: area to be protected, # of rare species protected.
3.Existing conservation areas review to determine what is protected already and what is not (IDing gaps in coverage)
4.Additional areas are IDed to help meet conservation goals(filling in gaps)
5.addition areas aquired for conservation/management plan is developed
6.New conservation areas are monitored to determine if they are meeting their stated goals. if not, the management plan can be changed or possibly addition areas can be acquired to meet goals. |
|
|
Term
Gap analysis: adding areas to an existing network
Fig 15.8 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How many protected areas? |
|
Definition
Depends on what question you wish to answer:
-protect each species at least once
-OR, protect each species multiple times
-protect only smallest-ranged species at least once
-trade offs against some measure of cost |
|
|
Term
| Hot Spots vs. Complementarity |
|
Definition
-Redundancy found in species Hot Spots?
-Increased costs incurred in protecting areas with significant overlap in species: opportunity costs?
-Complementarity: choose areas that represent differing species over a larger geographic area |
|
|
Term
Hot Spots vs. Complementarity
-Redundancy found in species Hot Spots? |
|
Definition
hot spots:areas that contain the most species, area of high endemic species concentration,
Complementary Areas: areas in which each new cell added to the set includes one or more additional species. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
SLOSS: Single Large or Several Small
-deabte over whether species richness is maximized in one large nature reserve or in several smaller ones of an equal total area |
|
|
Term
How large? -SLOSS
Single large |
|
Definition
-can protect larger animals (large wide ranging, low density species to maintain long term populations
-more persistence probability(minimize the ratio of edge habitat to total habitat, encompass more species and have greater habitat diversity than small reserves.
-low extinction rates
-can protect larger animals
-more persistence probability
Disadvantages:
-once park reaches a certain size, number of new species added with each increase in area declines (need to create other parks some distance away to be effective) |
|
|
Term
How large? -SLOSS
Several Small |
|
Definition
-Well placed reserves are able to include a greater variety of habitat types and more populations of rare species than one large block of the same area.
-eg: The number of large mammalian species if three national parks is greater than the number of species in the largest US park. Yellowstone larger than all parks combined
-Creating more reserves decrease the possibility of single catastropic force destroying entire populations.
-cheaper
-still good for small animals |
|
|
Term
| Choose areas using richness |
|
Definition
Species Richness (using richness):
43% of the plants
55% of the birds
59% of the mammals
54% of the amphibs/reps
Many
repeated species! |
|
|
Term
| Choose areas using complementarity |
|
Definition
using complementarity:
64% of the plants
75% of the birds
77% of the mammals
69% of the amphibs/reps |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Seeks to maximize number of species in entire network
-doesn’t maximize size of areas
-or connectivity
-Some conservationists argue that is more important to preserve communities and ecosystems rather than species |
|
|
Term
Do protected areas “work?”
-Bruner et al. 2001 |
|
Definition
-Most parks have either retained or -recovered natural vegetation.
-Close to 50% simply retained natural vegetation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Land clearing of tropical forests in 85 national parks is far lower than in 88 control areas surrounding those parks. For eg., the first two bars show that more than 80% of the parks have almost intact vegetation (<10% cleared), whereas less than 20% of nearby control areas have almost intact vegetation |
|
|
Term
| Which areas should be protected? |
|
Definition
Species Approach
Biological Diversity Indicators
Centers of Biodiversity |
|
|
Term
Which areas should be protected?
Species Approach |
|
Definition
Protect particular species and in doing so protect entire biological community.
-Focal species: species that provide impetus to protect an area and biological community. |
|
|
Term
Which areas should be protected?
Biological Diversity Indicators |
|
Definition
| Certain organisms can be used as biological diversity indicators when specific data about whole communities are not available. |
|
|
Term
Which areas should be protected?
Centers of Biodiversity |
|
Definition
WWF and other have attempted to ID key areas of the world that have great biological diversity and high levels of endemism and are under immediate threat of species extinction.
-hot spots: 25 global that encompass 44% of the world's plant species, 28% of the bird species, 30% of the mammal species, 38% of the and 54% of amphibian species with only 1.4% of earth's total land mass. |
|
|
Term
| Park size: Large parks in Africa contain larger populations of each species |
|
Definition
-Large parks and protected areas in Africa contain larger populations of each species than smaller parks; only the largest parks may contain long term viable populations of many vertebrate species
-If populations size of a species is 1000 then parks of least 100 ha will be needed to protect small herbivores.
-parks of more than 10 000 ha will be need to protect large herbivores
-parks of at least 1 million ha will be need to protect large carnivores. |
|
|
Term
Park size (Newmark 1995)
-Fig 16.3: |
|
Definition
-extinction rate deceases as park area increases
-mammals have higher extinction rates in smaller parks than in larger ones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Canada has 39 parks
-18 < 1000 km2
-14 (of the 18) < 500 km2
-36 parks either have, or used to have grizzly bears, black bears or wolf |
|
|
Term
Park size, Landry et al. 2001
-Canadian Parks: Wolves |
|
Definition
Minimum Critical Area (best case senario)=768km
Minimum Critical Area (worst case senario)=1707km
-best case: best conditions for reproduction & survival for wolf
17 parks have MCA, 19 do not under ‘worst case" |
|
|
Term
Canadian park size
-Grizzly Bears |
|
Definition
-Many parks too small for MCA when considering 1M:1F breeding ratio
MCA (best): 1977km
MCA (average 1m:1F breeding ratio): 3232km
MCA (average 1m:3f breeding ratio): 3429km |
|
|
Term
Canadian park size
-Black Bears |
|
Definition
-8 have MCA for 1M:1F breeding ratio, but 19 do not
MCA (best) 1171km
MCA (1:1 breeding) 3651km
MCA (1:3 breeding) 4967km
-Situation appears grim for black bears |
|
|
Term
Canadian small mammals
Gurd et al. 2001: How Small is Too Small? |
|
Definition
-Black line shows extent of Alleghenian- Illinoian mammal ‘province’ in NA
-Study of MCA for small mammals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Recognizing need for connectivity among parks, reserve design tries to choose areas that can act as stepping stones or corridors
-Yellowstone to Yukon |
|
|
Term
Connectivity
-Yellowstone to Yukon |
|
Definition
-The most intact mouttain system on
earth (1.2 mil km2)
-seeks to preserve and maintain the wildlife, native plants , wilderness and natural process of the mountain ecosystem from Yellowstone National Park to the Yukon.
-Y2Y is currently working on a
“Climate Change Readiness
Program” (Oct 09) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities (such as roads, development, or logging). This allows an exchange of individuals between populations, which may help prevent the negative effects of inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity (via genetic drift) that often occur within isolated populations. Corridors may also help facilitate the re-establishment of populations that have been reduced or eliminated due to random events (such as fires or disease). This may potentially moderate some of the worst effects of habitat fragmentation[2].
-Wildlife corridors are susceptible to edge effects; habitat quality along the edge of a habitat fragment is often much lower than in areas further from the habitat edge. Wildlife corridors are important for large species requiring significant sized ranges; however, they are also vital as connection corridors for smaller animals and plants as well as ecological connectors to provide a rescue effect. |
|
|
Term
Red squirrel genetic structure
Hale et al, Science 2001 |
|
Definition
Forest cover linking blue to red (lag
in gene flow due to time required for
trees to mature)
-Forest was planted in 1920s
-In 1950s-1960s, red squirrels of the
northern population began to extend
their ranges (north to west)
-importance of stepping stones for gene
flow |
|
|
Term
Connectivity
(Tewkesbury et al 2002) |
|
Definition
Butterfly movement (variegated fritillary and common buckeye), flowering plant reproduction
-Patches with ‘wings’ and non-winged
patches tested
-Showed greater proportion moved with connected patches. |
|
|
Term
Connectivity
(Tewkesbury et al 2002)
-Pollen and seed spread =
success with corridors |
|
Definition
In all cases, results demonstrated that corridors facilitate the movement of
disparate taxa between otherwise isolated habitat patches
Control for area effect by using ‘wings’ – result identical for winged and non-winged patches |
|
|
Term
Chapter 17
box: 17-3
Artic Wildlife Management Compatible with Oil Drilling |
|
Definition
-60% of refugres for wildlife has potentially harmful activities:
fishing, hunting, logging, mining, etc.
-ANWR (Arctic National Wildlife Reserve):
Untouched refuge, sits atop 7 billion barrels of oil
-Compromise: allow limited extraction using methods that minimize impact on environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Must also protect bio diversity outside park: 80% of the worlds land remain outside strictly prtected areas.
-70% of protected species occur on private land, 10% occur exclusively on private land.
-Park boundary is a psychological boundary: nature taken care of inside, abuse outside. |
|
|
Term
Areas outside parks
-Value of unprotected land |
|
Definition
-Encourage private landowner to protect rare species and biological organims.
Mountainsheep: isolated populations part of a metapopulation, land as well as habitat between populations must be protected. |
|
|
Term
Areas outside parks
-Value of unprotected land:
Florida Panther |
|
Definition
-87 individuals left.
-half of land in panther range is privately owned.
-panthers that spend most of time on private have better diet and better health.
-can't by private land, but can prevent the effects of edge fragmentation by education
-DMZ: undeveloped and protected, because of low human population density. |
|
|
Term
Species move into and out of
protected areas |
|
Definition
-Protected wildlife move out of Kibali
National Park (Uganda) and become
crop pests (Naughton-Treves 1997)
-American bison migrate out of
Yellowstone National Park during the
winter
-Buffer zones |
|
|
Term
| Conservation in Urban Areas |
|
Definition
-Protect lakes and streams from urbanization
-native species may persist in urban habitats.
-presence of wild animals cause faily serious consequences (human-wildlife conflicts).
-Attract predictors. |
|
|
Term
| Conservation in Agricultural Areas |
|
Definition
-can maintain considerable biological diversity in traditional agricultural system (mixture of small field, hedges and woodlands).
-less exposure to herbs/pest/ferts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Lands managed to provide variety of goods and services.
-Land have been managed for looding, mining, grazing, wildlife and recreation.
-USESA requires land owners and government agencies to activities that threaten listed species.
-Use lawsuits to stop government approved activites, because may be harmful to species.
-Diversity Maintenance areas: several large blocks of land were logging and road construction are foregoed.
-Rejected by Chief of the US Forest Service. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-More than 80% of world’s land will remain
outside strictly protected areas
-Still significant land area that is under low intensity use: not too late to preserve the original biota
-It is short sighted to rely solely on parks and reserves to protect biodiversity
-In US, 70% of named Endangered Species
exist on private lands (Stein et al. 2000) |
|
|
Term
Iberian lynx and protected
areas, Spain |
|
Definition
Population move in and out of protected area.
Show metapopulations
Move near and through human populations |
|
|
Term
Pregnant Iberian Lynx run over
in Doñana, Spain |
|
Definition
World's most endangered cat.
-Theo, a seven year old female lynx,
pregnant with two cubs, was killed by a
motor vehicle on 13 March on a road
between Algodonera and Laguna de San
Lázaro, within the Doñana protected
area. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Dotted lines enclosed areas used by radio-
collared panthers; black dots = sightings/signs
of uncollared panthers; squares = urban areas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Endangered sub-species of puma in
south Florida
-~ 87 individuals remaining
-Half of the panther range lands are
privately owned
-Acquiring 400,000 ha of land occupied
by panther: $2 billion + mgmt costs of
$30 mil/yr |
|
|
Term
| Park boundary as hard edge |
|
Definition
-Edge effects and the extinction of
populations inside protected areas:
-Data from 22 intensive studies of large
carnivores
-74% of 635 known-cause deaths: humans
outside protected areas |
|
|
Term
| Landscapes vary in the extent to which humans have altered patterns of species composition and natural vegetation cover |
|
Definition
| Range from wilderness, to national parks to muliuse forests to urban open space, city parks, and artificial. |
|
|
Term
Case study: Community-based
wildlife management, Namibia |
|
Definition
-14% land in protected areas, 44% private land, 41% communal lands
-1.8 million people
-1996: govt. allowed communities to
manage their own lands if they formed a
management committee and determined
where the boundaries of their land are |
|
|
Term
Case study: Community-based
wildlife management, Namibia
-Community conservancy benefits |
|
Definition
1. Joint ventures with tour operators, 5-10% of gross earnings to conservancy
2. Funds from joint ventures used to build campsites for tourist groups
3. Can apply to gov’t for trophy hunting rights (with quota imposed). Quota can be sold to trophy
hunting companies which bring tourists to conservancy land. Meat from hunted animals distributed to community.
4. If conservancy forms a wildlife management plan, 4 species (kudu, springbok, gemsbok, warthog) can be hunted for subsistence. |
|
|
Term
| The distribution of community conservancies and state protected lands in Namibia |
|
Definition
| -State protected areas and Conservancies are along cost. Mostly border one another. |
|
|
Term
The distribution of community
conservancies and state protected lands in Namibia |
|
Definition
-Show a marked increase in populations of species within Nyae Nyae Community Conservanvy
-Kundu and Onyx grew as did Elephant.
-overall population grew. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
attempts to characterize an entire
ecosystem
manage for long-term integrity of system
link multiple stakeholders:
-businesses (industry)
-conservation organizations
-gov’t. agencies
-private owners |
|
|
Term
Ecosystem management involves linking
all of the stakeholders
fig 18.6 |
|
Definition
-ecosystem management: enhancing multiple use management at the landscape scale that involves many stakeholders.
-integrates scientific knowledge of ecological relationshpi within a complex sociopolitical and values framework toward the general goal of protecting native ecosystem integrity over the long term. |
|
|
Term
| Main assumptions of ecosystem management |
|
Definition
-To protect biological diversity, the processes that produced it must be protected as well.
-Species richness alone is not a good measure of management success.
-Management must be planned for the long- term, possibly even for the indefinite future, i.e.,
ecosystem management is intended to result in both a sustainable system and a set of sustainable management activities. |
|
|
Term
| Ecosystem management in South Florida: |
|
Definition
Water management system is the main reason for the changes over time, with the exception of the conversion of
pinelands to urban
-Channeling, drainage first in 1880s, modified after hurricanes of 1920s/40s (for flood control)
-These led to elimination of much of the natural continuity of rangelands and diversity of natural systems
-Everglades is now an endangered ecosystem |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Pine forests: converted to human settlement
-Disruption of water storage by US Army Corps of Engineers, for sugar cane production: no sugarcane from Cuba in
1960’s
-wet-dry season requires EAA to be pumped or irrigated.
-Result: increased decomposition of organic soils, > 1.5 m soil subsidence in EAA, nutrient enrichment of WCAs (water conservation areas – disturbs balalnce or naturally oligotrophic system) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Lack of dynamic storage space to capture water releases from Lake Okeechobee.
-Abnormal water depths and altered sheetflow (water flow) patterns.
-Seepage losses to the east
-Loss of a substantial portion of the
original core area of the Everglades. |
|
|
Term
| US management and the Biosphere (MAB) plan… |
|
Definition
Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme (MAB):
-established in 1977 to promote an interdisciplinary approach to research, training and communications in ecosystem conservation and rational use of natural resources.
-Looks at mutual sustainability of human interests and protection of the Everglades
Buffer strip provides habitat
protection and limits urban
development
-is an area of land maintained in permanent vegetation that helps to control air, soil, and water quality, along with other environmental problems, dealing primarily on land that is used in agriculture. Buffer strips trap sediment, and enhance filtration of nutrients and pesticides by slowing down runoff that could enter the local surface waters. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– increased sheetflow across WCAs, Big
Cypress & Everglades National Parks
– water storage & supply buffered by the EAA and by Lake Okeechobee
– east coast buffer strip provides ground water seepage |
|
|
Term
| Management plan for South Florida |
|
Definition
Starting point was pre- drainage Everglades:
End goal should be biologically realistic, involving input from
societal experts (to implement changes
of benefit to society) and scientists (to measure how the system responds to
changes) |
|
|
Term
| End goals for management of ecosystem |
|
Definition
Changes in agriculture S. of
Lake Okeechobee to reduce soil
subsidence (grey)
Flow of water (at some level)
throughout the year |
|
|
Term
| A critique of ecosystem management |
|
Definition
From Goldstein: Functional ecosystems and biodiversity buzzwords. Conservation Biology, 13:247-
255, 1999
Argues that the main assumptions are not honored de facto, and that ecosystem management doomed to fail
because:
-Measures of local species richness can diminish the contribution of threatened species to priority goal setting.
-Good ”indicator taxa” don't exist, i.e., it's not possible accurately to predict community properties from the
presence or absence of certain taxa.
-Concepts like ecological integrity, ecosystem function, ecosystem resilience, ecosystem health, and naturalness don't provide concrete guidelines for management: they
lack precision |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
“For management strategies and techniques to be
successful at preserving anything other than
perceived structures, functions, and processes of
landscapes, they must be evaluated against the
performance of populations and metapopulations in
those managed landscapes, including but not limited
to the most sensitive and threatened species ...
Ecosystem management will be successful only if
‘ecosystem’ is used in a sense that can be gauged
with precision, and if the criteria used actually reflect
the needs of natural entities we wish to protect rather
than abstracted emergent properties, functions, and
processes of groups of organisms.” |
|
|
Term
Follow-up questions
(Walker) |
|
Definition
Another author (Walker) claims that “because functional
substitutability in the ecosystem has allowed it to continue
functioning in much the same way it did before an external
pressure was applied (e.g. grazing), the probability of all
other species in the ecosystem persisting remains high”.
-If a dominant species of grass declines, aren't herbivorous insects
associated with it likely to decline, too?
-To what extent can an ecosystem continue to function in the same
way, in terms of rates of flow through the nitrogen cycle for
example, with different species compositions?
Is it likely that “most ecosystems are structured by a
few, dominant processes''? How would you tell? |
|
|
Term
Dr. Thomas Homer-Dixon
arctic |
|
Definition
Changes in the Arctic are accelerating beyond expectations
Since 1979, the size of the summer polar ice cap has
shrunk more than 20 percent. (Illustration from NASA) |
|
|
Term
Dr. Thomas Homer-Dixon
Energy |
|
Definition
Energy return on investment lowering over time – economies are switching back to coal
CO2 has a very long resonance time: lingers in atmosphere for 100s of years
Heat shock in crops – affecting global food production (protein denaturation?)
-Projections that by 2040 food from California will be less available for export due to crop failure from heat
schock…we rely on many of these crops in the winter
-Will bio-engineering (GMOs) solve this, or just create other problems? |
|
|
Term
Dr. Thomas Homer-Dixon
China |
|
Definition
-China produces ~ 450 mil tons of grain that are consumed domestically
-Only 200 mil tons of grain are traded internationally…
-Crop failure due to changes in monsoon precipitation (weakening of monsoon with climate change) will divert
world grain trade to China?:
-"The rising temperature now leads to less precipitation, which
is not a natural pattern," said Larry Edwards, geologist at the University of Minnesota and co-author of the paper, which was published in Science (November 2008: A Test of Climate, Sun, and Culture Relationships from an 1810-Year Chinese Cave Record) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-We will run into catastrophic problems globally long before we run out of oil…
-In other words, peak oil is less of a concern than impacts of climate change
-Reliance on technologies that will bring down carbon emissions and carbon in atmosphere: burying CO2 deep in
the earth, putting particulate matter in the atmosphere over the poles to increase albedo ?
-Social mobilization and political will are now at the root of the problem, not technology (supports Garrett Hardin!!!) |
|
|
Term
| Restoring the Kissimmee River |
|
Definition
-Kissimmee River was a long meandering river that flowed from Lack Kissimmee to Lake Okeechobee.
-Number of lakes and streams drained into River.
-Annual floods created a unique ecosystem (not compatiable with urban and agricultural development.
-US ARMY CORPS dug a 90km long drainage cannal down center of flood plain, built levees and other water control structures and regulated water flow from feeder lakes.
-2/3s wetlands drained, 1/3 of rivers natural channel destroyed.
-Wintering birds declined, game fish declined.
-replaced by cattle egrets, gar and bowfin.
-demonstration project in 1984 reestablished some old cannals, recreated marshland and reestablishing old river channels.
-US congress reauthorized backfilling flood canal and removing water controls:
densities of wading birds and ducks have increased more than fourfold, game fish populations have doubled and dissolved oxygen levels have increased.
Final project cost is 578 million
Each step monitored for progress. |
|
|
Term
| Conservation requires a multi-disciplinary approach… |
|
Definition
| -Sustainable development: economic development that satisifes both present and future needs for resources and employment while minimizing the impact on biological diversity. |
|
|
Term
Definitions of sustainable development include
What is to be sustained: |
|
Definition
What is to be sustained:
Nature:
-biodiversity
-ecosystems
-natural habitats
-evolutionary potential
-life-support
-ecosystem services
-natural resources
-climate
-ecosystem productivity
-culture
Human communities
-groups
-places |
|
|
Term
Definitions of sustainable development include
What is to be sustained: |
|
Definition
What is to be sustained:
Nature:
-biodiversity
-ecosystems
-natural habitats
-evolutionary potential
-life-support
-ecosystem services
-natural resources
-climate
-ecosystem productivity
-culture
Human communities
-groups
-places |
|
|
Term
Definitions of sustainable development include
What is to be developed: |
|
Definition
People:
-Child survival
-Life expectancy
-food security
-education
-equity
-equal opportunity
Economy
-living wage
-wealth
-productive sectors
-consumption
Society
-stabilized population
-housing
-institutional capacity
-social capital
-states
-regions |
|
|
Term
| Economic development ≠ Economic growth |
|
Definition
Economic Development: implies improvements in efficiency and organization but not necessarily increase in resource consumption.
-Economic development is clearly distinguished from economic growth, which is defined as material increases in the amouth of resources used. Sustainable development is a useful and important concept in conservation biology because it emphasizes improving current economic development and limiting economic growth. |
|
|
Term
| Improving Current Economic Development and Limiting Economic Growth |
|
Definition
Sustainable development is a useful concept because it emphasizes economic development and limiting economic growth.
eg: Investing in national park infrastructure to improve protection of biological diversity and provide revenue opportunities for local communities. |
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Term
Sustainable Development
Corporations |
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Definition
Misappropriate term:
-greenwashing industry without practical changes:
Setting up a mine in wilderness and protecting a small portion of that land is not sustainable development. |
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Term
Sustainable Development
Conservation Biologist Extremes |
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Definition
Misappropriate as well:
claim that sustainable development means that vast areas of the world must be kept off limits to all development and should remain as or be allowed to return to wilderness. |
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Term
| Different levels of organization |
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Definition
Conservation at the Local Level:
– Land trusts: Nature Conservancy
– Local legislation
Conservation at the National Level:
-National legislation:The U.S. Endangered Species Act
Traditional societies, conservation, and sustainable use:
-Conservation beliefs
–Conservation efforts that involve traditional societies
– Evaluating conservation initiatives that involve traditional societies |
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Term
| Conservation at the Local Level: |
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Definition
Designation of intact biological communities nature reserves and land for conservation.
Government buys land as local parks for recreation, conservation areas to maintain biological diversity, forests for timber products and other uses. |
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Term
Conservation at the Local Level:
land trusts |
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Definition
private conservation organizations are among the leaders in acquiring land for conservation.
-common in Europe: British National trust has been undergoing a dramatic increase since the 1960s.
RSPB manages 182 reserves with 126 000ha. |
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Term
Land Trusts
The Nature Conservancy of Canada |
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Definition
Once land is secured, NCC engages in the careful stewardship of the land, including:
* Developing property management plans. Based on detailed inventories of species and habitats, these plans document the condition of the land and identify priority actions needed to protect key species and habitats over the long term.
* Engaging communities and volunteers to help NCC take care of the land.
* Developing formal agreements when lands are transferred or managed by others.
* Monitoring properties on a regular basis to certify that key natural features remain protected.
* Responding to unforeseen threats or issues as they may arise. |
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Term
Land trust vs. conservation
easement |
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Definition
• Other types of land trust:
– RSPB, UK, mainly conservation and education
– Land Legacy, Oklahoma, agricultural soil
conservation, urban green spaces
– Mt. Victoria Farm, part of Maryland Environmental
• Trust, historic farm plus watershed
• Conservation easement
– agreement not to develop (or sell, or subdivide) land,
in exchange for a sum of money, or tax benefits
– “Limited development”: portion of land developed,
other portion protected |
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Term
Number of international
non-government organizations |
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Definition
there has been enormous growth in the number of international nongovernmental organizations since 1950; many of these organizations protect the environment, promote the welfare of people and lobby the government to take actions relating to conservation.
Many NGOs have a local focus, but here are already over 40 000 international NGos. Help to organize and educate citizens to achieve conservation objectives. |
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Term
Number of international
non-government organizations |
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Definition
| The Live Green Toronto Community Animation Project |
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Term
FLAP
-Light index vs. birds killed |
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Definition
| Shows increase in the number of birds killed per light as light index increases. |
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Term
Number of green turtles nesting at
Tortuguero Beach in Costa Rica
following protective measures |
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Definition
-Following decades of over collection of sea turtle eggs and adult turtles, Costa Rica government undertook a series of actions to protect this endangered species.
-Government banned the collection of eggs and adults then it stopped exports of turtle products in 1969.
The government established a national park:
Increased the number of estimated green turtle nests. |
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Term
Endangered species will often require
active management and intervention as
part of the recovery process
-Fig 20.6 |
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Definition
Overall under half of the listed species are still declining in number, just under half are stable or increasing and most surprisingly, the remaing approximately 100 species are of unknown status.
Stages of Recovery:
Adapted to Human Dominated Environments
Maintains viable populations under existing regulatory mechanisms
Periodic Intervention
Continuous Intervention to eliminate or Decrease a Limiting Factor
Continuous Intervention to Restore Desirable Ecological Processes at Landscape Level
Sustained In wild as a result of captive releases
Only occurs in captivity |
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Term
| Greater time elapsed since ESA listing means greater probability of improving status |
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Definition
The longer species have been listed, protected and managed under the Endangered Species Act, the greater probability they have of improving in status (whooping crane).
And the lower their probability of continuing to decline in status (indiana bat low)
-Greater efforts must be made to study the lesser known, under appreciated invertebrate groups |
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