Hormone imbalances

Severe vitamin deficiencies

Metabolic disturbances

poor nutrition

genetic factors

emotional stress

medical conditions

low body fat

cigarettes, alcohol, drug abuse

infections & abnormalities in the cervix, vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes & ovaries 

abnormalities in spern number &/or motility

damaged or enlarged vein in testis or vas, called a varicocele-- blood pools in scrotum, elevates temp in area, impairing sperm production

infectious diseases of male reproductive tract-- mumps

smoking, alcohol, drug use and abuse- marijuana impairs mobility

environmental toxins 

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

is secreted by placenta, is detectable in pee 

Reproductive alternatives

1. artificial insemination

    a. semen put in vag or cervix

2. surrogate mother

    a. artificial insem, in vitro, etc is used

3. assisted reproductive technology (ART)

    a. "test tube baby"

4. in vitro fertilization

    a. drugs-> females produce extra ova, or some are donated to her

    b. eggs removed from her body, fertilized in dish, then placed in             uterus

    c. often leads to multiple births

5. zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) & gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)

    a. semen and ova -> directly in fallopian tube

    b. zygote/gamete distinctions refer to how developed

Stages:

    1. First stage labor

        i. dilation of cervix "Bloody show"-- mucus discharge from cervix

        ii. beginning of contractions

       iii. rupture of amniotic sac (water breaking)

    2. Second stage labor

        i. infant descends-> birth canal

        ii. usually lasts 30 min-> 2 hrs (mother can push)

    3. Third Stage labor

         i. from time of birth till delivery of placenta (after birth)

C Section: baby removed through incision of abdominal wall & uterus. can be elected or done as emergency procedure 

person whose gender ID is oppo to his/her biological sex

gender dysphoria: feeling of being trapped in wrong body 

people whose appearance &/or behavior doesn't conform to trad gender roles.

i.e. cross dressing to obtain psycosocial satisfaction rather than sex arousal 

having both masc & fem interests and behs

1/3 college students are androgynous

UCLA study: how heteros are perceived by partner

    i. males were perceived as being androg & women as being trad

    ii. males feared being perceived as self-centered, insensitive machos, & women feared being seen as too competent/assertive, though not true for all 

tend to become more adrog with age 

a. girls seen as "fragile & mild mannered", boys as "strong & hearty"

b. treat girls and boys differently, fostering dependency for girls and independency for boys

c. fathers reward rowdy behavior in boys. boys-> rowdy, girls-> social

d. given diff clothes, rooms, toys, etc.

e. boys not taught to talk & think much about emotions, esp fear

f. sometimes impending close female-male relations later on 

tend to like girls more because they behave well. rewarded

bs have more problems adjusting to school,  hurt by lower verbal skills, higher aggr & rowdy behavior, ADD