-          Six specific types of evidence

1)      Examples –

2)      Stories –

3)      Statistics 

4)      Testimony –

5)      Comparisons and Contrast –

6)      Definitions of Key Terms or Concepts –

1)      Examples –

a.       Specific instances = non-detailed examples

b.      Factual illustrations = detailed examples

c.       Hypothetical illustrations = mythical examples

a.       Anecdote = short story (fictional/non-fictional) that proves a point, without the persuader having to say “the moral is”

b.      Narrative = long story (usually non-fictional) that invites the audience into the experience with the persuader

a.       Personal = the persuader’s own opinions or facts

b.      Lay witness

                                                                          i.      “Simulated” – little boy in kitchen…came along and took pic

                                                                        ii.      “Actual” – car test drivers

c.       Paid witness

d.      Historical authority

e.       Expert authority

a.       Literal = comparison of things in the same class

b.      Figurative = comparing things of different classes

c.       The Contrast Principle = if a second item is fairly different from the first, it seems more different and acceptable

a.       Olean ad: Not diarrhea but “loose stool”

b.      Animal rights vs. Animal welfare

c.       American made vs. Foreign made

-          Seven tests of evidence:

1)      Is the evidence trustworthy?

2)      Is evidence documented sufficiently?

3)      Is the evidence “recent”?

4)      Is the evidence authoritative?

-          When is evidence most effective?

-          When is evidence most effective?

Evidence is most effective when…

The audience is unfamiliar with it

The audience perceives it to be “good” evidence

The audience is centrally involved

The source’s qualifications are given in detail or not at all

It is presented effectively

-          An argument MUST have 2 THINGS

1)      Two or more assertions = statements we believe to appear and want others to believe

a.       Example – Gasoline prices will decline by 10% this year.

If we continue to play like this, we will win the Big Ten this year.

2)      A claim or conclusion = the point we wish to make

a.       Example – [Claim] GreenBay will lose early in the playoffs [Reason] because of trades, injuries, and aging players.

1)      Evidence or data = Proof that supports an assertion or claim

2)      Reservations = Circumstances that reveal limitations of a claim

a.       Example – If we’re at war

Unless he loses at least 60 pounds

Except in self-defense

3)      Qualifiers = Words that reveal the degree of confidence (certainty or uncertainty) in a claim

a.       Examples – Perhaps

Almost

Usually

Good chance

Probably

*BEWARE: of contradictory connections in arguments called non-sequiturs

-          Inductive argument patterns

*Move from specific to general

*Move from evidence to claim

A statement about the distribution of some characteristic among the members of a specific class.

            a. What is the amount of the sample?

            b. How was the sample selected?

            c. What is being asserted from this sample?

A statement indicating what caused an observed effect

                        a. Was this the only or major cause?

                        b. Could this cause generate this effect?

                        c. What evidence establishes a causal link?

*BEWARE: a false cause or post hoc fallacy occurs when (1) We argue that since B followed A, A must have caused B or (2) Coincidences are seen as causes.

 - Examples – I got the flu the day after I got the flu shot.  That shot gave me the flu.

                  I got an A on that test without reading the book, so I’m not going to read the book before any exams.

A statement that explains best the available evidence

                  a. How frequent is this hypothesis with this evidence?

                  b. Are facts sufficient to warrant this claim?

                  c. What evidence would make this hypothesis more or less convincing?

Statement that two or more variables are related in such a way that the presence or absence of one may be taken as an indication of the presence or absence of the other.

                  - Example – The flag on the post office is at half-mast; someone important must have died.

                  a. What is the relationship between the variables?

                  b. Is the presence or absence verifiable?

                  c. What is the reliability of the sign?

A statement that points out two things that share a number of characteristics and makes a claim based on these similarities

                  a. Literal – comparing like objects

                  b. Figurative – comparing unlike objects

                  c. Simile – a suggested “likeness” designed to involve the audience in the process and trigger self-persuasion

                              - Example – Chevy, like a rock.

                  d. Metaphor – a suggested or implied comparison designed to involve the audience and trigger self-persuasion

                              - Example – Chevy, an American Revolution.

-          Deductive argument patterns

·         Move from general to specific

·         Move from premises to a claim

·         Claim necessarily follows from the premises

1)      What is true of a whole class must be true of a part of a class.

- Everything that goes up must come down

- The space station went up

- Therefore, the space station will come down

a.       Do you accept the premises as stated or implied?

b.      Does the conclusion necessarily follow from the premises?

*BEWARE: self-evident truths that claim questions are not arguable because they are settled by rule or fact.

            Example – The earth is flat, everyone knows that.

The Enthymeme involves the audience in the process by leaving one or more parts (premises or claims) unstated to allow others to fill in the missing pieces and persuade themselves in the process.

1)      Something will happen on condition that something else will or will not happen

a.       Do you accept this condition?

b.      Is this condition the only or major condition?

1)      Asserts that either A or B is or will be true, but not both

a.       Are these the only or major choices?

b.      Do you agree with the elimination of a particular choice?

*BEWARE: of a false dichotomy that reduces a complex issue or process into two sides or alternatives.

Bifurcation – tactic that polarized a group or situation

            Examples – Sony and everyone else

                        Either or us or against us

                        Either conservative or a liberal

-          Purposes of structuring a message

1)      Attention

2)      Comprehension

3)      Retention

4)      Persuasion

1)      The proposal promises to satisfy one or more needs or desires

2)      The proposal and persuader are consistent with the audience’s beliefs, attitudes, and values.

3)      The proposal is workable, feasible, practical

4)      The benefits outweigh the disadvantages

5)      No better alternative is available.

-          Monroe’s motivated sequence:

Attention

1)      Create interest

2)      Establish goodwill

a.       Rapport – liking for one another

b.      Credibility

c.       Legitimacy

*75% of efforts fail in this step

-          Monroe’s motivated sequence:

Need

1)      State thesis and/or purpose?

a.       Study of ELM: forewarning participants that researchers were going to try to change their attitudes produced biased processing of the message.

2)      Develop one point at a time thoroughly and with evidence

3)      Involve the audience because attitude is affected by:

a.       Involvement

b.      Consequences of action or inaction

4)      When possible, get agreements as you go along

5)      Use pointing to show how the problem affects the audience.

a.       Throughout the need step

b.      At the end of the need step

Step #3

-          Monroe’s motivated sequence:

Satisfaction

1)      Present criteria – with the audience – any solution must meet

a.       Natural to make decisions with criteria

b.      Audience may have criteria in mind

c.       Structured means of presenting your solution

d.      Effective means of countering competing solutions

2)      Explain the solution

a.       Provide details and evidence

b.      Employ audio-visual aids and demonstrations

3)      Show how the solution fits the problem

4)      Show feasibility

5)      Show how it satisfies the criteria best

6)      Meet possible objections

a.       Anticipate common objections:

                                                                          i.      Procrastination

                                                                        ii.      Money/cost

                                                                      iii.      Tradition

                                                                      iv.      Uncertain future

                                                                        v.      Need

                                                                      vi.      Priority

                                                                    vii.      Convenience

                                                                  viii.      The Unfamiliar

7)      Employ an appropriate tactic

a.       Minimize = reduce its significance

b.      Capitalize = build on it

c.       Deny = eliminate it

d.      Rejection = retreat

Visualization

1)      Positive approach

2)      Negative approach

3)      Contrast approach

-          Step #5 Monroe’s motivated sequence:

Action

1)      Close when the audience is ready

2)      Appeal for action

1)      Commonground strategies

a.       Yes-But: You need to say but to show the negative side; justification

b.      Yes-Yes: If I get you saying yes long enough, you’ll go right on agreeing till the end

c.       Implied:

                                                                          i.      If audience is highly intelligent

                                                                        ii.      If audience opposes your proposition

                                                                      iii.      If the persuader is highly skilled

Number of arguments or points

a.       More (3-4) is better than fewer

b.      A single point is easy to refute or reject

c.       Too many (5-8) may bore, confuse, or overload the audience

Must know strength of your arguments from careful topic, audience, and situational analysis

a.       Beginning and end are equal in effect

b.      Never place your strongest argument in the middle

c.       Beginning for any persuasive effort in which you might run out of time or be stopped

a.       One-side if the audience agrees

b.      One-side if audience is unintelligent/uneducated

c.       Two-sides if audience is hostile

d.      Two-sides if the audience is well-educated

e.       Two-sides with refutation most effective

Factual and Judgmental Claims:

-          Facts hold out the possibility of being proven true or false

-          Judgments, in contrast, express priorities, preferences, or values that may justifiably differ from individual to individual.

-          A judgmental claim involves the assignment of personal preferences to persons, objects, or laws.

-          Frequently we are trying to discover the warrants for arguments.

-          The claim is the conclusion of an argument – the destination the persuader wants us to reach.

-          The grounds are the facts or information on which the claim is based.

-          The warrant is the portion of the argument that connects movement from the grounds to the claim.

-          Warrants allow us to make inferences from the evidence to the claim, and they often remain unstated.

-          Example – Suppose someone claims that “Islam promotes violence and religious intolerance.”

·         Claim: Islam is a violent religion

·         Premise: Look at what the Taliban taught and advocated

·         Premise: The Taliban harbored Islamic fundamentalists who unequivocally expressed their hatred for the United States

·         Warrant: (Unstated but necessary: The Taliban are a representative and significant segment of Islamic thought.)

Ad Hominem:

-          Argument directed against persons rather than against their ideas.

-          In ad hominem arguments a judgment is often personal and negative, deflecting attention away from the merits of an argument to alleged and largely irrelevant defects of an individual or a group.

Non Sequitur:

-          A non sequitur occurs when a conclusion does not follow from the reasons that have been cited.

·         Example – A car with a “Conquer Cancer” slogan on its license plate, and the driver smoking.

-          Most non sequiturs have at least superficial connections that link claims to supporting reasons.

-          The sum total of a claim does not fit together = non sequitur

-          Non sequiturs are prevalent in advertisements

-          The more dangerous non sequiturs are those that arise in debates on important social issues and in the rhetoric that is offered in defense of an official action.

-          Example – The environmental stickers on the back of a gas guzzling SUV

Excessive Dependence on Authority:

-          One legitimate pattern of reasoning is to support a persuasive claim by citing the opinion of experts.

-          Excessive dependence on authority sometimes results in the premature conclusion of discussion.

Denial Often Defeats Reasoning:

-          Our world views often immunize us against the infection of others’ ideas, rejecting unwanted or unacceptable conclusions.

-          Denial routinely functions as an effective shield that can be used to ignore reasoning that takes one to an unpleasant conclusion.

-          Example – It is easy to find smokers who will explain that (1) they understand it is a behavior that carries some risks, and (2) they still do not intend to quit.

·         A common end-run around the evidence about the harm of smoking is to challenge some of its credibility, or ignore it.

-          Know the Audience:

·         Persuading an audience is similar to a journey over unfamiliar terrain. Your route has to be adjusted to fit the landscape of existing attitudes.

·         Persuasion involves adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas, and therefore thorough preparation starts with questions about the audience:

§  How will they respond to your point of view?

§  Will they consider you a qualified advocate?

§  What is the extent of their prior knowledge?

§  Has anything happened recently that would affect the audience’s interest and attitudes?

§  What position have opinion leaders in the audience taken on the topic?

§  What core values or attitude will your own message challenge?

§  Which existing audience values can be used as good reasons?

·         Questions like these will help you assess the audience to decide what you can hope to accomplish in the message.

-          Determine Your Objectives:

·         You are now in a position to set realistic goals about what you can achieve.

·         You have successfully found the objective for a message when you know exactly what you want from your contact with the audience

·         Examples –

§  To encourage a jury member to vote “not guilty”

-          Determine Your Thesis:

·         Write the thesis that you want to communicate.

·         Think of the thesis statement as the primary conclusion of the message, the statement to which everything else that is said is subordinate.

·         Failure to establish one central idea in your planning can result in much wasted time and disorganization

·         Stating a general topic rather than a specific thesis falls short of providing the guidance necessary to prepare the rest of the message

-          Develop Main Points:

·         Locating the good reasons that justify the thesis

·         Reasons are good when they make sense to you and are likely to make sense to your audience as a defense for the thesis.

-          Amplify and Support the Main Points:

·         Many listeners will remember only two things:

§  Your general point of view

§  Your most interesting example of illustration

·         There are two basic ways to make ideas vivid and memorable: amplification and proof

·         Amplification dramatizes the familiar or ordinary; evidence seeks to prove what may be doubted

·         Listeners discover the significance of ideas through application to specific situation. Examples, extended illustrations, comparisons, and analogies are the basic explanatory tools.

·         The second key form of message development is evidence, which aspires to providing proof – sometimes factual, sometimes informed opinion – for a controversial claim.

§  Evidence is used to reduce doubts and reservations in a skeptical audience

-          Write the Introduction:

·         While the introduction is the first part of the speech, it is the last to be written.

·         A good introduction prepares an audience to accept the main points that you will present, reducing resistance to your ideas and arguments.

·         Consider the following:

§  Gain Interest and Attention – An audience cannot be motivated to accept an idea until it has been motivated to listen. Stories, relevant personal experiences, or vivid statistics are good ways to begin speeches.  Abstract ideas are more accessible when explained through the actions of particular people.

§  Establish Goodwill –

§  Use Humor (Carefully) to Soften Opposition

§  Preview the Scope of the Message – A crucial part of the opening is a clear statement of what you will cover. This is sometimes called a “road-sign” or “overview” statement. Listeners should be given advance notice of the length and scope of the topic in which they are investing their attention.

§  Define Key Terms – Successful communication sometimes depends on the way words or phrases are used.

-          Prepare the Outline:

·         Your outline should contain key ideas and concepts you want to cover

·         The outline illustrates a basic organizational style that works well in speech preparation: a limited number of points and the expectation that the specific language, transitions, and some detail will be added during delivery.

-          Presenting the Message:

·         Guidelines to consider:

§  Practice delivering your message several times, but do not memorize it or read it.

§  For your outline, use double-spaced large type (16 point or larger) on full sheets of paper.

§  Be flexible about cutting or adding items to the outline.

§  Use a systematic pattern of indenting so that key points can be easily located along the left-hand margin.

§  Avoid writing a conclusion that introduces new ideas that have not been developed in the body.

§  A major goal should be to communicate your conviction. Don’t be overly concerned about pauses, the urge to rephrase an idea, or the desire to make another attempt to clarify a point.

§  Use media to support sparingly.

-          Persuasion intended to weaken the impact of opposing advocates

-          See page 6, Structural Strategies

Strategic Considerations for Nondiscursive Persuasion:

-          Persuasion can be visual as well as verbal.

-          We are extremely ocularcentric – defining what we know by what we can see.

-          The representational world offers immediate and universal signs and symbols: images and sounds that cross beyond the borders of language to communicate in universal terms

-          Nondiscursive media depend on the instant connections made by visual information because they usually have less time to make their point.

-          The “peripheral” route

-          Attention is brief and depends on the initial impact of key words and images.

-          Images provide effective analogues to complex ideas; they can easily represent the essence of a message.

-          Images can also function as icons. Icons are graphic or pictorial representations that are instantly recognizable to members of a culture, or a sub-group within it.

Honoring Gestalt Values:

-          Gestalt theory was a complete psychological system that believed that individuals had to be understood in the specific context of their lives, not simply as physical agents.

-          Core guidelines for how we perceive relationships between elements of an image

-          Helps explain how we perceive images, and indicate what seem to be certain hard-wired human predispositions for processing visual information. They include:

·         Figure and ground. We perceive objects against the context of their surroundings

·         Similarity. We group similar things in the same frame together

·         Proximity. We assume connections and relationship between the same things or people if they are in the same location.

·         Continuation. The layout of a message visually creates a line or natural curve.

·         Closure. We fill in what is left out but implied.

-          The lines are increasingly blurred between news, entertainment, information, and advertising.

-          Since we are selective in what we expose ourselves to, any message framed in ways that gratify our insatiable thirst for the unusual or interesting has a decided advantage.

Use a Sympathetic Figure or Key Icons:

-          A thing or person that embodies or represents the much larger universe.

·         One of the thought patterns we use to discover and describe basic truths

Frame the Discussion in the Imagery of Heroes, Villains, and Victims:

-          Characters must be sorted out as creators of the problem (villains), bystanders who have been harmed (victims), or protagonists who may solve the problem (heroes).