-The label is the birth certificate of the wine

• Who made the wine
• Where it was made
• When it was made (vintage)
• What is in the bottle (grape varietal)
• And possibly some indication of handling, ranking, or classification 

• House Wines
• Premium Wines
• Regular (Standard) Wines
• Reserve Wines

• Plan to order the wine at the same time that you order the food (not sooner)
• If a fancy restaurant, ask whether a sommelier (specialist) is on staff

• The waiter or sommelier presents the bottle to you for inspection
• The server removes the cork and places it in front of you
• If your wine needs decanting, the server decants it 
• The server pours a small amount of wine into your glass and waits
• If you accept the wine, he pours the wine into your guests' glasses first, then finally into yours

• Make sure that the bottle is the bottle you ordered
• Feel the bottle to ensure that it's the right temperature
• Check the label carefully
• Nod approval to the server

• You should determine (smelling and visual inspection) whether the cork is in good condition and if it seems to be the legitimate cork for that bottle of wine
• In rare instances, wine may be so corky that the cork itself will have an unpleasant odor
• Even rarer, the cork may be totally wet/shriveled or dry/crumbly
• Either instance suggests air has gotten into the wine and spoiled it

• Expected to sniff the wine, take a small sip, then nod approval or say it is fine
• If something is wrong, now is the time to return it; if so, describe to the server what you find wrong

9 defective odors:

• Sulfur Dioxide
• Hydrogen Sulfide
• Mercaptans
• Oxidized Blend
• Maderized
• Corked (TCA)
• Dekkera/Brettanomyces
• Sorbate
• Pediococcus 

• Stinging sensation in the nasal passage
• Used in excessive amounts, has an unpleasant effect upon the tissue of the throat and nose as well as a pungent smell

• Rotten eggs
• Results from the reduction of sulfur dioxide or of free sulfur

• Essence of skunk and rotten cabbage
• Compounds with intensely disagreeable smells similar to that of hydrogen sulfide
• In these compounds, one of the hydrogen atoms of hydrogen sulfide is replaced by an ethyl or similar alkyl group
• It is often described as a garlic odor
• To distinguish between hydrogen sulfide and mercaptan is sometimes difficult

• Loss of flavor (bland)
• Result from the action of air on the various components of wine
• The particular smell produced is dependent upon the grape variety from which the wine was made, the rate at which air is introduced, the length of time the wine is aerated, and the temperature of the wine during aeration.
• There is some resemblance between an oxidized odor and that of prolonged aging in wood in contact with air; the distinction between the two odors can be established only by experience and by knowledge of the appropriateness for the type.

Barnyard, horsey, mousey smells 

Bitter, metallic taste

White with the first course, Red with the entrée

Each operates independently; you don't need to follow all together:

• White before Red
• Light before Heavy
• Dry before Sweet
• Simple before Rich/Complex Flavored

1. The usual way is to start from the food side; you pick a meal and try to find a wine that will complement it
2. The second way is to begin with the wine and then decide what food to have with it; you want the wine to be the star of the evening and want to find a dish that will let the wine show its best

• Composition of the main ingredient
• Intensity of the main ingredient flavors
• Seasonings used in its preparation
• Cooking Method itself

The riper the grapes get, the more sugar and less acidity they have

• Taste sweeter and less tart
• Riper Grapes = higher alcohol content
• Lower acidity = softer texture in the wine

1. Picking of grapes
2. Transporting
3. Crushing/Destemming
4. Sulfur Dioxide Addition
5. Settling of Skins, Pulp, Juice, and Pressing
6. Fermentation
7. Cellar Operations
8. Aging in Stainless Steel, Glass, or Wood
9. Blending
10. Cellar Operations
11. Bottling and Packaging
12. Bottle Aging

1. Picking of Grapes
2. Transporting
3. Crushing/Destemming and Juice Separation
4. Sulfur Dioxide Addition
5. Vatting
6. Fermentation
7. Pressing
8. Aging
9. Cellar Operations
10. Barrel Sampling
11. Continued Aging
12. Blending 
13. Cellar Operations
14. Bottling
15. Bottle Aging

Winemaking Step 1 (White and Red)

Beginning late summer and early fall, the green, yellow and gray-skinned grapes are picked when they reach 21-23 percent sugar (or degrees brix)

Winemaking Step 2 (White and Red)

Grapes brought to Winery

Winemaking Step 3 (White and Red)

White:

• The stems are simultaneously separated and removed, crushing the grapes and releasing the grape juice

Winemaking Step 4 (White and Red)

Two Major Functions:

• To control undesirable microorganisms
• To serve as an antioxidant

Winemaking Step 5 (White)

• When making white wine, the free run juice is usually removed from the skins within a short period of time
• Once this free run juice has been transported to the fermentation vessel, the remaining grape pulp and skins are gently pressed squeezing out the sugar-rich juice prior to fermentation
• The juice is allowed to settle so that some of the pulp solids settle out
• The juice is then pumped to the fermentation areas to be made into wine

Winemaking Step 7 (White)

• Stirring of the yeast cells to develop body, texture, and in some cases, more alcohol

Winemaking Step 6 (White)

• The juice is pumped into glass-lined, oak barrels, or stainless steel tanks where activated yeast is added to start the fermentation
• At 55 F° the yeast feeds on the grape sugar converting it to alcohol and CO₂ gas
• If a dry wine is desired, yeast is allowed to consume all the sugar
• To obtain a sweeter white wine, the fermentation is cut short by refrigerating the wine at the desired sugar level, thus rendering the yeast inactive (some white wines are fermented in small oak barrels)

Winemaking Step 10 (White) Step 13 (Red)

• The addition of a precipitating agent to remove small, suspended particles
• When the fining agent is added, the particles cling to it and settle to the bottom; the clarified wine is subsequently transferred to another container

Winemaking Step 10 (White) Step 13 (Red)

• The process of clarifying a wine by passing it through a filter
• A wine filter is usually constructed of several porous layers sandwiched together, through which the wine is pumped under pressure
• Besides removing sediment that might make the wine cloudy, filtration is helpful in removing yeast, bacteria, and other unwanted substances, to stabilize the wine and to protect it from spoilage

Winemaking Step 10 (White) Step 13 (Red)

Microbiological stability is achieved by removing, killing, or preventing developments of the microbes by use of sulfur dioxide and other permitted agents such as sorbic acid

Winemaking Step 10 (White)

To prevent tartrate precipitation

Winamaking Step 10 (White) Step 13 (Red)

• Wine is made from a process of chemical reactions
• During these reactions it is not uncommon for the wine to pick up iron and copper from metal equipment, and calcium from concrete tanks
• This ion-exchange is undesirable
• Today, winemaking equipment is made out of stainless steel or glass

Winemaking Step 8 (White)

As the wine matures, careful analysis and skilled tasting is done to check its development and insure its quality

Winemaking Step 7 (White) Step 10 (Red)

• Each barrel is tasted and the flavor profiles noted
• For white, part of cellar operations

Winemaking Step 11 (White) Step 12 (Red)

• The winemaker combines various barrels to produce the final blend
• Wines from different grape varieties or from the same variety but with different qualities may be blended

Winemaking Step 11 (White)

• After careful aging, the wines are bottled and packaged
• Soon after bottling, white wines are released

Winemaking Step 13 (White)

• Most white wines are ready to drink shortly after bottling 
• Some whites will improve with additional bottle age but most will not

Winemaking Step 5 (Red)

• Pumping of skins, pulp and juice into fermenting tank
• Red wines can also be put through a cold soak or maceration period to extract color, flavor, and aroma from the grape skins and in some regions, stems as well

Winemaking Step 6 (Red)

• Activated yeast is added, and at 80 F° for 5-7 days the yeast ferments the natural grape sugar converting it to alcohol and CO₂ gas
• During the fermentation, the juice is often pumped over the cap of skins which forms at the top of the vat
• Through this process, we extract pigments, giving the wine color, flavor, and body
• After the yeast has consumed all of the sugar we have a young, dry wine
• Malolactic fermentation can occur after the primary fermentation has occured

Winemaking Step 7 (Red)

After fermentation the wine rich skins are delicately pressed to extract the remaining wine

Winemaking Step 8 (Red)

In wood cooperage begins

Winemaking Step 11 (Red)

Many fuller-bodied red wines receive an additional 1-2 years in 50 gallon oak barrels. Here these red wines develop bouquet, greater finesse, and depth of character

Winemaking Step 14 (Red)

After careful aging, the wines are bottled and packaged

Winemaking Step 15 (Red)

• The red wines receive bottle aging (binning) for an additional period of months or years
• Even after release from the winery, full-bodied reds require one to ten years to further develop in the bottle

• Grape varietal
• How it is grown
• The terroir (soil and climate)
• The capability of the winemaker

Grape Growing

• Temperature, Soil (Terroir), Rainfall (Irrigation), Health Root Stock, Trellising Techniques
• Includes steps 1 and 2 of winemaking
  

1. By hand (costly but more control of what is picked)
2. By machine

1. By baskets 
2. By truckload

1. Grape varietal
2. Age of vine
3. Density of planting
4. Yield/acre
5. Site - soil, slope, elevation, drainage, orientation to sun
6. Microclimate (rain, average daily temperature, number of daylight hours, length of growing season)

Affects yield, density, and complexity

• 3 yrs. after planting yields first grape crop (basic juice)
• 5-15 yrs. the wines are prolific and begin to develop more complex flavors
• 30-50 yrs. the yields decline but concentration of flavors continue
• 50-100 yrs. the vines have very low yields

Affects quality and price

• 1.5 tons of grapes/acre = 100 cases
• 3 tons of grapes/acre = 200 cases
• 6 tons of grapes/acre = 400 cases
• 9 tons of grapes/acre = 600 cases

Affects wine quality

• Microclimate: rain, average daily temperature, number of daylight hours, length of growing season
• Site: soil, slope, elevation, drainage, orientation to the sun
• Marginal climates sometimes produce unique wines but vintage variation is significant

Winemaking (science and skill)

• Refers to the influence of the winemaker, which includes: equipment and facilities and production capacity and demand
• Includes steps 3-13/14 of winemaking

1. Winemaking (science and skill)
2. Equipment and facilities
3. Land and labor costs

1. Skin: tannins and color
2. Stalk: tannins
3. Pulp: sugar, fruit acids, water, pectin 
4. Pips: butter, oak

1. Water
2. Alcohol
3. Acids
4. Sugar
5. Anthocyanins
6. Tannins
7. Phenols
8. Grape solids
9. Sulfites
10. Undesirable elements

1. Color
2. Body
3. Texture
4. Aroma
5. Bouquet
6. Taste
7. Aftertaste
8. Storage Life

• Affects body, mouth-feel, and storage life
• Wines too high in alcohol will taste "hot" and give a burning sensation
• Fortified Wines: have alcohol added in the form of grape neutral spirits to boost their levels as high as 20%

Body:

• Normal ranges for table wines = 7-14.5%
• Light Bodied = 7-10% (cool climate)
• Medium Bodied = 10-12% (cool-moderate climate)
• Full Bodied = 12.5+% (warm to hot climates)

• Yields alcohol
• Amount of sugar (potential alcohol) depends on ripeness of grape at harvest
• Measured in degrees brix

• White Wines: 21-24 Brix --> 11-13% alcohol if fermented dry
• Red Wines: 22-26 Brix --> 12-14% alcohol

• Tartaric, malic, lactic, citric
• Contribute to crispness, structure, and balance

Levels of acidity affect taste:

• Low Acidity = flabby, flat taste
• Correct Acidity = crispy, fresh, lively taste
• Excess Acidity = green, harsh, sour taste

• Water makes up 85% or more of table wines
• It dilutes all other components, which can be both good and bad

• Residual sugar balances high acidity 
• Wines with less than .4% sugar = technically dry
• Wines with high acidity can appear dry to the taste even though they have residual sugar

• Anthocyanins: provide color in red wine
• Tannins: provide structure and aging potential; can cause a mouth-drying sensation and bitterness
• Resveretrol: antioxidant in wine, believed to be effective in lowering cholesterol

1. Fortification
2. Chapitalization
3. Malolactic Fermentation
4. Acidification
5. Amelioration

Addition of sugar to the grape in order to boost the natural sugar level and produce a slightly higher alcohol level in the finished wine

• Common practice in cool growing regions

Secondary Fermentation

• High levels of malic acid can be converted to a softer lactic acid through a secondary fermentation
• Produces by-products such as glycerol and diacetyl
• Glycerol --> fatness
• Diacetyl --> buttery flavors

Addition of acid (usually tartaric) to the finished wine

• Usually done in hot climates where the natural acidity in grapes is low

The addition of water and sugar to the grape must in order to dilute acidity and boost the alcohol in the finished wine

• Practice used in NYS cooler wine regions 

• Sight (appearance, color)
• Smell (aroma, bouquet, off odors)
• Taste (flavors)

Appearance of a wine is judged upon whether or not the wine seems clear or contains sediment/suspended material:

• Brilliant: free of any visible solids, sparkling clarity
• Clear: free of any visible solids, lack sparkling clarity
• Dull: easily seen/distinct colloidal haze, free of visible suspended material
• Cloudy: large amounts of colloidal materal/suspended particles
• Precipitated: contains non-colloidal material or crystalline or amorphous nature which may settle out as a visible deposit leaving wine clear

Color: White Wines

• Pale yellow/green
• Light yellow/straw
• Medium yellow
• Light gold 
• Medium gold
• Possible Defect: amber-brown color

Contain several flavonoids which have been definitely identified. The interaction of oxygen with these substances, especially in the presence of trace amounts of metallic ions produces materials having amber or brown colors

Lose color with age:

• Pink/Rosé - small amount of anthocyanins; orange tint = over oxidation
• Young/immature = purple/red
• Youthful = ruby-garnet red
• Mature = brick red (rusty edges)
• Declining = tawny (brown edges)
• Over the Hill = brown (muddy)

Pink/Rosé, light, medium, dark red, tawny

The color of red wines results from the presence of anthocyanins. In the vinifera grape the principal anthocyanin is malvidin monoglucoside. Differences in the reddish hue, of course, result from the presence of other anthocyanins in varying amounts and from the fact that the color of the anthocyanins varies with the hydrogen ion concentration of the wine. Oxygen, as in the case of white wines, also affects the color of red wines by producing brown-colored oxidation products

Fragrance associated with the grape variety

• Fruity, vegetative, nutty, caramelized, woody, earthy, chemical, pungent, oxidized, microbiological, floral, spicy

Fragrances developed in the winemaking and aging process

• With bottle age, the bouquet changes
• Wood Influence: vanilla, toasty, smoky, spice, butter, coconut
• Bouquet is influenced by esters formed during fermentation and developed during barrel/bottle aging
• These may be divided into two general groups, tank aging bouquet and bottle bouquet

1. Cabernet Sauvignon
2. Pinot Noir
3. Chardonnay
4. Sauvignon Blanc
5. Pinot Gris
6. Merlot

• French>Italian

• Add yeast: a particular strain of saccaromyces
• Yeast converts sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide is produced

Winemaking Step 7 (White)

• Stirring of the yeast cells to develop body, texture, and in some cases, more alcohol

Winemaking Step 9 (Red)

• In large cooperage, the suspended particles in the fresh wine are allowed to settle and the clear wine is then pumped off
• After this "racking" process, often repeated three times, the wine is then allowed to mature for some period of time
• The softening, or breathing, through the wood allows the wine to mature and develop greater complexity

• Can cause mildew and mold to grow easily on grapes
• Dilutes flavors

• Refers to a wine's texture, "mouthfeel"
• A wine that has undergone malolactic fermentation (often), which produces diacetyl (buttery flavor)

• Refers to a wine in a state of suspended animation, usually after a number of years in the bottle
• Presumption is that contents will revive at some point
• Generally happens in middle age, and lasts for several years

• A wine that smells a bit funky and musky (earthy)
• Often describes an American hybrid grape

• Wines that were particularly lively, a bit of bounce in the glass
• Lift comes from a generous amount of acidity

• Wine hasn't been exposed to enough oxygen during the winemaking process, which can make it smell a but sulfurous
• Can sometimes be remedied by adding oxygen, sometimes not

• A wine marked by too much acetic acid; usually because of yeast/bacteria (acetobacter)
• Can also produce ethyl acetate aromas, similar to nail polish remover
• Often smells like vinegar
• Can destroy aroma and taste 

Spicy, geranium, honeysuckle, cinnamon, ginger, grapefruit, apricot, lemon, banana, orange, peach, melon, pineapple, apple, lychee fruit, roses

Apple, toasty, vanilla, lemon, sweet clove, buttery or creamy, figs, melons, coconuts, tea, pear, flinty

Aged Chardonnays: Peach, pineapple, sage honey

Fruity, apricot, peach, green apples, floral, lemon, tropical lushness

Botrytised Rieslings: Honey

1. Attack (Introduction)
2. Evolution
3. Finish
4. Aftertaste
5. Consider: impact, balance, intensity, complexity, length, typicity

1. Sweet
2. Sour
3. Salt
4. Bitter

There is a progression of taste recognition on the palate as we evaluate wine, first fruitiness (sweet) then acidity (sour), and bitterness is usually perceived last

• Certain of the grape varieties, when grown under optimum conditions, have aromas which are characteristic of the particular variety
• While some of these characteristic varietal odors may be described as smelling "like some other fruit" or in general terms, it is felt that the varietal aromas are basic to sensory examination and that they should stand as such
• Trained enologists should have a built-in impression of the basic aromas of those varieties in which the aroma is easily detectable, so that when confronted with an unknown sample, they are capable of recognizing and identifying the aroma
• Some of the varieties considered to have easily detectable characteristic aroma are: Chardonnay, Muscat, Pinot Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Gewurztraminer, White Riesling, Gray Riesling, Cabernet 

• Certain of the grape varieties, when grown under optimum conditions, have aromas which are characteristic of the particular variety
• While some of these characteristic varietal odors may be described as smelling "like some other fruit" or in general terms, it is felt that the varietal aromas are basic to sensory examination and that they should stand as such
• Trained enologists should have a built-in impression of the basic aromas of those varieties in which the aroma is easily detectable, so that when confronted with an unknown sample, they are capable of recognizing and identifying the aroma
• Some of the varieties considered to have easily detectable characteristic aroma are: Chardonnay, Muscat, Pinot Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Gewurztraminer, White Riesling, Gray Riesling, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay, Pinot Noir, Point St. George, Zinfandel, and some of the Labrusca varieties.

• The desirable odors produced in wine during storage in tanks or casks are known as aging bouquet
• These may consist of the odoriferous substances extracted from oak, and the compounds formed from the aroma materials by their slow oxidation by air diffusing through the walls of the cask

• When the bottled wine is relatively plentiful in compounds in higher oxidation states, the slow oxidation-reduction interchanges that occur in the bottle give rise to new substances whose odor is designated bottle bouquet development
• It is recognized that bottle bouquet development is dependent upon the presence of basic and fermentation aroma substances, as well as bulk aging bouquet compounds, for its satisfactory development

• The sharp and pungent smell produced by the action of certain lactobacilli on wines
• This smell is probably most easily detected by smelling the hands after a few drops of the suspected wine has been rubbed briskly between the palms

• The smell known as overaged is most generally found in white table wines which have been aged too long
• The odor probably results from oxidative changes and it is usually accompanied by darkening in color

• The smell of molds may appear in wines made from moldy grapes or in wines which have been stored in moldy cooperage

• Characteristic of the dried grape
• In wines, it usually results from the use of grapes harvested too late

• The characteristic odor of wet wood is apparent in wines aged for a long period in wooden tanks or casks
• A trace of this smell—particularly that of oak—is desirable in fine red table wines, well aged dry sherries, sherries and tawny ports, but when excessive, is unpleasant, especially so in white table wines

• True taste sensations are probably limited to the four classes; sour or acid, sweet, bitter and salt, with the tactile ability to discern viscosity also of importance
• In the examination of wines, however, there are a number of sensations—due perhaps to complex interactions of the odor receptors and the taste receptors—which only become apparent when the wine is taken into the mouth
• The warming up of the wine in the mouth may also release odors
• For this reason a number of terms are listed under tastes which could also be classified as odors

• The acid taste in wines results from the presence of tartaric and malic acids principally, although citric, succinic, latic, and acetic acids also contribute.
• Terms used to designate acid concentrations are: Flat, Tart, Green/Acidulous/Unripe

• This and similar terms describe wines with low acidities
• The terms soft and mellow are frequently applied to wines of low acidity

• The sensation of sweetness in wines is derived mainly from the presence of the sugars, glucose and fructose
• The term "dry" is used to indicate the lack of sweetness
• Glycerol also contributes to the sweet taste, while acidity and astringency counteract the sweet impression

Natural: no added sugar

Brut : 1.5% sugar

Extra Dry: 1.5 - 3% sugar

Sec or Dry: up to 3.5% sugar

Demi Sec: 3.5 to 5% sugar

Doux or Sweet: 5 to 10% sugar

• The non-sugar solids of a wine are referred to as body
• Body is not primarily detected by taste but rather by the receptors sensitive to viscosity and possibly salt concentration
• Since both alcohol and glycerol influence the viscosity, these substances complicate the estimation of body
• It is the "feel" of the wine as it is swished about in the mouth
• Terms: Light/Thin, Medium, Heavy/Rich/Robust/Full