Term
| Functions of Skeletal System |
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Definition
- Shape- affects reproduction and feeding
- Support- important for terrestrial animals which live in a gravitational field
- protection- protect vital organs and CNS
- Locomotion
- Blood formation
- buoyancy
- respiration
- speech and audition
- Sink for minerals
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Term
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Definition
- aka density
- ratio of the material density to the density of water
- pure water = 1
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Term
| Specific Gravity of Fluids |
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Definition
- Water = 1
- Body Fluids slightly more than 1
- Flexible biological materials ex. ligaments and tendons = 1.3-1.5
- Rigid skeletal materials ex. bones = 2-3
- Shell made out of calcium carbonate = 2.7-2.9
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Term
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Definition
- material property of skeletons
- skeletal elements have to have some elasticity
- Skeletons attempt to have a high one
- elastic components store energy
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Term
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Definition
- ability of material to keep its shape
- things not easily distorted are elastic
- ex. bone
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Term
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Definition
- Materials loose shape easily
- ex. tendon
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Term
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Definition
- Stress- tensile stress- force per cross sectional area
- Strain- amount of response you get when you apply the stress- change in relative size
- bone slope is steep
tendon slope is very small
- yield point- material changes from elastic to compliant called "plastic"
- Ultimate strength- how much you can take before everything breaks
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Term
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Definition
- a lot of stress = a little strain
- this is what we want
- this is bone
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- 2 chicken bones
- 1 burn off the compliant materials (proteins and collagen) so only left with the hydroxyapatite materials (calcium phosphate materials); whitish-gray color and shatters easily
- 1 dissolve the hydroxyapatite so only left with the compliant materials; bone will be blackish brown; becomes very compliant and bends to where you can tie it in a knot
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Term
| Types of Skeletal Material |
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Definition
- Compliant components- proteins and from organic compounds ex. collagen (verts; cartilage, ligaments, tendons), chitin (2nd most organically produced material; inverts)
- Elastic components- inorganic compounds which make up bones and shells (resist compression) ex. hydroxyapatite, calcium phosphate, silicon dioxide, calcium carbonate
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Term
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Definition
- aka Hydrostatic skeleton
- different components: 1) fluid involved- utilize incompressibility of body fluids 2) Fluid must be enclosed in a limited space; multiple layers of fibrous material wrapped around to hold fluid in place 3) Circular muscles-
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Term
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Definition
- Muscles that attach only to themselves
- fiber angles dictate how skeleton works
- nematodes- fiber angle ~75 degrees; provides side to side movement
- squid- smaller fiber angle; allows for elongation; jet propulsion
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Term
| Hydrostatic Skeleton Types |
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Definition
- Fluid and Soft Wall- most common; fluid filled and soft body wall. Ex. jellyfish, annelids (each ring is an individual hydrostat; good for burrowing), echinoderms, sharks & whales (stores energy in elastic properties of skin)
- Fluid and Muscle- layers of muscles laid at different angles- complex mvmnts; ex. trunk of elephant, tongues
- Fluid and rigid element- ex. spiders; flexors but not extendor muscles in legs, they flood legs with fluid which allows them to jump great distances
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Term
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Definition
- hard material excreted to outside of body
- Adv: weight advantage (hollow tubes support more weight), protection, elastic (allows skeleton to store and reuse energy)
- Disadv: compressive buckling (diamter increases, loss of support, chance of buckling increases), higher risk of puncture, impediment of growth (molt in order to grow), material and protection loss, limited mobility
- Rule: Animals that remain small have exoskeleton
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Term
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Definition
- risk of collapse- if big animals molt they would crush themselves
- insects molt 3 times: 1st time in water
- aquatic marine crustaceans molt throughout life several times
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Term
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Definition
- epicuticle- thin outer component; prevents gas & water from moving across, wax makes them impermeable to water;
- procuticle- inner thicker part with 2 parts:
- exocuticle- top layer made of proteins that are stabilized with phenols and "tanned" strong (stiffens interconnections btwn proteins); makes flexible
- endocuticle- inner part made of chitin and calcium salts (where calcium secreted)
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Term
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Definition
- internal framework
- Adv: can achieve large size, conservation of materials (bones constantly grow), specialization of shape
- Disadv: heavy, limits size (bones have to be able to support weight), expensive to maintain, limitation to movement
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Term
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Definition
- most primitive
- spongin (more flexible part; absorbant) and spicules (resist compression) are the internal skeletons
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Term
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Definition
- Notochord- 1st internal skeleton; series of huge, fluid-filled cellscovered with sheath; lose during development; intercalated discs btwn vertebra are the remaining parts
- Cartilage- chondrocyte (cartilage cells in a nonlving elastic matrix; make cartilage); avascular; does not heal fast
- Bone- resists compression; high elastic modulus; osteocytes (bone cells); hydroxyapatite (mineral matrix bone cells in made of calcum phosphate; higher verts)
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Term
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Definition
- Long- longer than wide; support weight; femur
- short- as wide as long; dexterity; hands, feet
- flat- attachment, protection; pelvis scapula, ribs
- irregular- everything else; spinal column, ear ossicles
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Term
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Definition
- spongy
- trabeculae bones
- birds
- a lot of air space so they splinter easily
- make birds lighter & easier to fly
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Term
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Definition
- connective tissue
- living cells in nonliving ossified matrix
- lacuna- pocket where osteocyte cell sit
- allows for gas exchange
- osteon units combined
- constant rebuidling
- bones heal stronger then before they broke
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Term
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Definition
- Muscle contraction
- Amoeboid movement- pseudopods
- cilia/flagella mvmnt
- direct cell mvmnt (cell division)
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Term
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Definition
- passive components
- expend no energy; do not move
- used by other molecules to push and pull
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Term
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Definition
- contractile proteins
- 2 types:
- G-Actin: globular actin; binds to form F-actin spontaneously
- F-Actin: filamentous actin; sticks together like beads on a string
- resist tension; used to pull
- 30% of amoeba volume; role in cytoplasmic streaming
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Term
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Definition
- Contractile proteins
- flagella and cilia mvmnt
- independent subunits that can snap together to make microtubules to form rods
- resist compression and tension; used for pushing and pulling
- composed of heterodimers (2 differ proteins bound together)
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Term
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Definition
- Contractile proteins
- collagen (skin)
- keratin (hair, nails)
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Term
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Definition
- active molecules
- enzyme activity
- hydrolyze ATP = ADP + inorganic P + energy
- Makes things move and runs machinery
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Term
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Definition
- Molecular motor
- shaft, hinge, globular head (enzymatic activity)
- myosin associate w/G-actin and spontaneously form cross bridges
- can form or break bridges w/out altering actin or myosin
- found in muscle and non-musclecells
- nonmuscle myosin- less robust; thinner shaft, smaller head
- associated w/amoeboid and muscular mvmnt
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Term
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Definition
- Molecular motor
- enzyme
- generates sliding motions btwn contractile microtubules
- ciliary and flagellar mvmnt
- ATPase activity
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Term
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Definition
- molecular motor
- soluble protein
- some ATPase activity
- moves cell organelles along microtubules (in one direction)
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Term
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Definition
- regulatory protein
- G-actin binding proteins
- seen in mollusks to mammals
- regulates (blocks) actin to myosin crossbridge formation
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Term
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Definition
- regulatory proteins
- binds to tropomyosin
- activated by calcium- binds w/calcium which initiates muscle contraction
- add calcium, troponin stretches, can move the attached tropomyosin & now crossbridges can form
- Not outside muscle cells
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Term
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Definition
- all animal cells
- can be found outside muscle cells
- activation for amoeboid mvmnt
- calcium binding protein
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Term
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Definition
- found in muscle
- in this group b/c no other place to put it
- structural in muscle cells
- linked to F-actin
- non-muscle cells- attaches to actin to cell membrane- ameoboid mvmnt
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Term
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Definition
- related to cytoplasmic streaming
- not well understood
- believe due to shift in cytoplasm from sol to gel state
- actin & myosin formation changes cytosol from sol to gel
- break crossbridges, it is runny and flows
- calcium is trigger
- MYOSIN REGULATED
- picture in notes
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Term
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Definition
- sponges to humans; widespread adaptation
- Adv: small things can move thru substrate, big things can move substrate over themselves
- 9+2 arrangement identical in both
- Difference: flagella move in 2 ways- 2D plane and 3D plane; cilia- 2D only and in 2 phases
- Power stroke- cilia pushes medium
- Recovery stroke- prepare for the next power stroke
- Flagella- not synchronized
- Cilia- work together; "metachronous waves"
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Term
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Definition
- mechanism of metachronous waves
- perhaps electrical event
- repetitive signals carried in cell membrane and distributed to each cilia; never been abl to shppw it starts at cellular level
- evidence against: cilia can change direction; ciliary responses are grated; no electrical events been measured
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Term
| Coupled Oscillator Hypothesis |
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Definition
- water is viscous
- as cilia pushes thru medium, create waves in fluid that drags along adjacent cilia
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Term
| Mechanism of Mvmnt for Cilia/Flagella |
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Definition
- Dynein is molecular motor
- Dynein has 2 arms which attach to one of the microtubule elements in the doublet (A and B tubule) and can interact w/other elements
- ATP present, attaches to B tubule and slides back down when ATP gone
- This shortens & lengthens the filament quickly
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- Skeletal- voluntary
- Cardiac- involuntary muscle but w/striated pattern
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Term
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Definition
- sarcolemma- muscle cell membrane
- indentations w/in celll membrane which creates tube w/in cell membrane called transverse tubule system (T tubules)
- muscle tissue has excitable membranes: action potential carried along sarcolemma & brought inside cell
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum- ER for muscle cells; not contiguous w/outside mebrane; store Calcium
- Little pouches next to T tubules but T tubule & SR never touch
- Most of fluid stored in fat pouches called terminal cisternae; contains high conc. of calcium
- Densely packed w/Calcium pumps
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Term
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Definition
- subunits w/in muscle cell
- sarcomeres- functional unit of muscle contraction
- Myofilaments- make up sarcomeres
- thick filaments- molecular motor; several myosin folded together
- thin filaments- regulatory & contractile proteins; actin- 2 strands of F-actin laying side by side; tropomyosin; troponin; take all 3 strand and twist; makes striated muscle
- One sarcomer incorporates thick and thin filament
- joined end to end by alpha-actinin plate that binds to thin filaments but not thick; how striated pattern
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Term
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Definition
- Z line- alpha-actinin plates; dense protein; dark; one sarcomere
- I band- isotropic- lots of light- only a thin filament
- A band- anisotropic- light does not pass thru thick filament; both Z and I
- H zone- helle- slight increase in light in thick filaments
- M line- thick filaments tail regions of myosin proteins stick together- very dark; brighter than H
- picture of it
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Term
| Stage 1 of muscle contraction |
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Definition
- resting stage
- ATP binds the myosin head is immediately cleaved to ADP +Pi but does not leave myosin head
- Conformation shift
- turns head toward Z line
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Term
| Stage 2 of Sliding filament theory |
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Definition
- crossbridge formation
- calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum, binds with troponin
- Conformational change causes a shift in tropomyosin whcih exposes the active crossbridge formation
- there is another conformation change
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Term
| Stage 3 Sliding Filament Theory |
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Definition
- Power stroke
- myosin and actin form temporary crossbridge, myosin head shifts toward M line which drags the thin filament with it
- another conformational change, slight deformation in myosin head and ADP+Pi falls off
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Term
| Stage 4 Sliding Filament Theory |
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Definition
- release stage
- ATP binds to myosin head and results in conformational change
- cross bridge broken
- allows myosin head to cleave ATP to ADP+Pi, shifts back toward Z line- crossbridge broken conformational change
- Muscle contraction is an all or nothing property
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Term
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Definition
- I band gets smaller
- A band stays the same
- H zone disappears; gets shorter
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Term
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Definition
- how they get a grated response
- nerves attach tp muscles at the motor end plate
- As action potential passes down t tubule, it causes changes in mebrane configuration which results in release of inositol trisphosphate which finds it way to the terminal cisternae which makes SR walls permeable to calcium and initiates muscle contraction (EXCITATION CONTRACTION COUPLING)
- SR is effeicient in sucking clacium back up; calcium gone no more contraction
- Muscle relaxation needs ATP
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Term
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Definition
- slow, steady contractions
- striated muscle
- postural muscles
- do not require action potential to work
- lesser verts, amphibians, reptiles, birds
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Term
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Definition
- rapid, twitch response
- two kinds: slow and fast
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Term
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Definition
- slow contracting fibers, slow to fatigue
- make up bulk of postural muscles in mammals
- large amount of mitochondria, and contains oxygen storage pigment (myoglobin)- gives muscle darker color
- birds, mammals, and higher verts
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Term
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Definition
- fast phasic glycolytic fibers- fast, powerful, but fatigue quickly; generate energy in absence of O2; need rapid contractions for explosive mvmnt; few mitochondria; white color (few myoglobin); accumulate oxygen debt; cheetahs; derived from glycoloysis
- Fast Phasic Oxidative fibers- fast, not as powerful as white fibers; a lot of power and fatigue slower; longer chases of prey; large amounts of mitochondria
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Term
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Definition
- Striated
- t tubule system more sophisticated and allows quick communication
- pace maker regions- transmembrane potential becomes spontaneously unstable and initiates action potential on its own
- connected electrically with intercalated disks
- contractions are longer and more sustained to squeeze blood out of heart
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Term
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Definition
- lacks striation pattern
- sarcomers are less organized- not lined up
- contraction process works the same but functional units of sarcomers are not defined clearly
- myofilaments- random in placement
- ex. abducter muscles in clams
- innervated many places; allows for prolonged mvmnts; autonomic control with exception of urinary bladder; contracts and retracts slower; large surface area to volume ratio; no troponin, replaced by CALMODULIN
- varicosities- bumps on smooth muscle which allows for good conduction so motor axons can innervate membrane
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Term
| Differences btwn smooth and striated muscle |
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Definition
- striated muscle has discreet synaptic junctions with motor end plates, sets off whole muscle cell
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Term
| Temporal counter-current heat exchanger |
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Definition
- nasal passage
- dry air moving across moist membrane cools down wall of nasal passage
- air reaches lungs it is body temp
- as exhale, warm air moves outand looses heat to the cooler wall
- greatest volume of exchanged air is at the end of nose
- nasal wall lined with mucus polysaccharide
- as mucus dries out, water evaporates and wall cools down
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Term
| Female mammhals have water burden during lactation |
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Definition
- hooded seal has least amount of water of any known mammal
- explains why there is so muc hfat in hooded seal milk
- milk kangaroo rat- uses even less water, relaized adaptation has to do with water conservation
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Term
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Definition
- limited to arthropods
- absorb water directly from air
- Agranular cells, eversible bladder, rectal sac containg hygroscopic fluid
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Term
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Definition
- salivary glands located in mouth that produce fluid rich KCl
- KCL absorbs water from air; all air hais some water in it
- Mites and lice
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Term
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Definition
- desert cockroahces- larva and neotonous females (reach sexual before physical maturity)- have them
- invert it out of mouth; covered w/fine, cuticulur hairs
- hairs are extension of exoskeleton
- tube inside a tube
- 3 hypothesis:
- bladders surface sovered with thin wall of KCl, it absorbs water, and pulls back in mouth
- cuticulur hairs wick water from air w/capillary action
- cuticulur hairs are hygroscopic
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Term
| Rectal sacs containing hygroscopic fluid |
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Definition
- fire brats
- dry hot environment, specialized rectal sacs w/hygroscopic fluid to draw out water directly
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Term
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Definition
- rare adaptation
- 1 gallon water = ~7 lbs, expensive to move
- terrestrial amphibians can store dilute urine in their bladder; can store 50% body mass in bladder as urine; salt conc. in this stored urine is <1%
- draw water from bladder with dilute urine
- reptiles can but to a much lesser degree
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Term
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Definition
- frog in Australia
- stores water and then burrows under rocks and wait out summer until rain returns
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Term
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Definition
- more efficient way to conserve water
- shifting the ionic balance from one side of the membrane to the other and allowing water to move passively by osmosis
- ion concentrations change by absorbing salt and excreting salt
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Term
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Definition
- size graduated filtration method
- pressure mediated mvmnt of solute (fluid) across a semipermeable membrane
- expensive process
- water and small solutes move across a membrane while larger molecules are retarded
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Term
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Definition
- expenditure of energy
- mvmnt of solutes against an electrochemical gradient
- move ions directly
- active secretion: transport directly from an animal's body tissue or fluids into lumen or holding area with tubular systems for excretion; can occur by itself
- active reabsorption- spends energy to transport ions directly from lumen, back into the blood.
- if ultrafiltration takes place almost always does actve transport also
- Secretory organ or an ultrafiltration reabsorption organ
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Term
| Teleost gill- chloride cells |
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Definition
- secretion organ
- water and salt balance tactics used by marine verts
- all marine fish are hypoosmotic to medium and lose water to environment
- Make up water loss by drinking constantly resulting in increased salt intake
- fish kidneys excrete divalent ions
- chloride cells specialized to excrete sodium and chloride
- found on fish gills and to a lesser extent the operculum cover
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Term
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Definition
- primary lamellae
- gill filaments have extensions called secondary lamellae
- base of secondary lamellae are the chloride cells
- chloride cells are cuboidal shaped
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Term
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Definition
- NaKCl pump is linked to the active NaK pump
- High energy metabolism- mitochondria provide energy for NaK pumps
- extensive tubular system provides surface area for pump attachment
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Term
| Gill filament diagram explained |
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Definition
- NaK pumps all over chloride cell; tremendous Na potential so Na pumped out and forced back in w/a K and 2 Cl
- K finds a way back out (permeable), Na pumped out, Cl stays in
- Chloride channels (rectified) forces Cl back out when conc. gets too high
- Cl collects in apical crypt making largely (-) charge; Na @ bottom makes the charge (+); Na travels up btwn accesory & chloride cell to attach (NaCl)
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Term
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Definition
- moves Cl thru the Cl channels at apical crypt since membrane not permeable to Cl
- btwn blood and seawater
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Term
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Definition
- Na conc builds up, Na is forced out at the loose junction
- membrane not permeable to Na
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Term
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Definition
- reptiles & birds can't eliminate salt directly
- extra renal organ
- no ability to conc salt in urine higher than blood
- control of hypothalamus
- can shut the moff & reptiles can control its size
- water & salt balance tactic by air breathing marine verts
- unlike kidneys, excrete salt intermittently (saves energy); only excrete Na and Cl; secretion conc remains more or less constant; grow or shrink relative to demand
- all marine birds- nasal- large- can increase in size- some of the most effective ion transport systems known; give seagull 1/10 body wt seawater, eliminated 3 hrs
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Term
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Definition
- crocodile- lingual- on the tongue
- snakes- sublingual- under the tongue
- turtles- orbital- posterior orbit of cry; salt tears
- iguana- nasal- blows salty snot
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Term
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Definition
- insects secretory adaptation
- connect where hindgut and foregut join
- only spot in GI tract w/put chitinous lining
- 1-100s of them
- responsible for controlling water balance and ion content by excreting KCl
- actively transport K & followed by passive mvmnt of Cl
- low rate of urine formation so reabsorb most water from urine so makes pellets that are almost dry
- Not as effective as salt glands
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Term
| Ultrafiltration/reabsorption organs |
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Definition
- more complex and involves multiple systems
- protonephridia and metanephridia- simple branching tubes which opens to pore
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Term
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Definition
- simple, blind sacs with 1 to several flagella at closed end
- flagella create pressure difference needed for ultrafiltration
- mvmnt of flagella give flickering appearance giving name of flame cells (thru which intestinal fluid passes to enter tubular system)
- creates a (-) pressure inside relative to outside; makes pressure gradient necessary for fluid to move across membrane and be filtered
- Found mainly in acoelomate
- controls osmotic water uptakes, reabsorbs salts, & eliminates nitrogenous wastes
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Term
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Definition
- pseudocoelomate or acoelomate
- internal ends open up to bottom cavity w/funnel like structure
- collect soelomic fluid
- blood vessels associate w/the excretory tubules and the tubule drains thru a nephridiopore
- don't know if they evolved independently or not
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Term
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Definition
- verts
- very energetically consumptive; 2nd biggest demand of energy budget
- filter everything out of blood stream & reabsorb only things needed
- secretory kidney must have specific receptor sites tuned to toxins that animal might ingest; some animals (insects) restricted what they can intake
- Humans can eat whatever will cross filtration membrane- ADVANTAGE
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Term
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Definition
- pronephric kidney: only 1 glomerulus; lower level verts
- Mesonephric kidneys: amphibians and fish
- Metanephric kidney: amniotic animals; most advanced
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Term
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Definition
- afferent arteriole- runs into kidney carrying blood & fluids
- forms a big capillary ball; openings bigger than 100x capillary in muscle cell
- leads back to another capillary bed = portal system
- efferent arteriole gives rise to 2nd series of capillaries- peritubular capillaries; gives rise to renal corpuscle
- 1st capillary bed called glomerulus- pressure component
- tubular system: Bowmans capsule surrounds glomerulus & cells on it are podocytes w/extensions come off them
- Podocytes wrap around capillaries and have filtration slits (where water leaks out)
- 3 filtration barriers: frenstrated capillaries (fluid can come out but not blood), filtration slits (physical barrier), and electrical barrier
- basement mebrane- podocytes & frenstrated capillaries; (-) charge from proteins so repels platelets & antibodies; acts like 3rd filtering membrane- keeps small things out like antibodies
- every drop of fluid passes thru kidney in 40 min
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Term
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Definition
- nephron- functional unit of kidney
- fluid enters collecting duct, most is urine
- fcollecting ducts in pyramids and called renal pyramids
- permeability of collecting duct controlled by ADH
- High conc of ADH, very permeable to water
- low conc of ADH, water can't leak out and higher urine flow
- low ADH levels from beer, cold temps, and sex
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Term
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Definition
- only true vert osmoconformer
- do have pronounces\d ionic regulation
- isoosmotic body fluids & high salt conc will behave osmotically like inverts
- non-functional pronephretic kidneys but functional mesonephric kidneys
- proximal tube with glomerulus connected to it image
- both pairs contain 30-35 lg oval glomeruli
- kidneys may help in water balance but not salt excretion
- slime production source of Ca, K, and Mg secretion
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Term
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Definition
- hyperosmotic to medium & continually gain water
- kidneys control wate balance, not salt excretion
- water & ions are forced into the glomerulus, ions are reclaimed by the tubules
- peritubular capillaries & renal portal veins surround tubules & return them to blood
- most fish excrete nitrogenous wastes- NH3- across the gils
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Term
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Definition
- replace water lost to seawater by continuously drinking seawater
- small glomeruli, or aglomerular kidneys secrete divalent ions & waste solutes
- tubular reabsorption is via the peritubular renal portal system
- aglomerular kidneys- seahorses; pipefish; toadfish
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Term
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Definition
- chondrich. have high blood urea levels to make up osmotic gap
- conc to 2.5% compared to other verts
- slightly hyperosmotic
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Term
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Definition
- counter current magnification system: loop of henle: extra segment btwn PCT and DCT; responsible for conc urine so high in hairpin structure
- Fish, amphibians, and reptiles use kidneys to primarily get rid of divalent ions; do not have urine conc higher than blood
- no salt glands
- world champion: australian hopping mouse; conc salt in urine 25x that of the blood; urine strikes ground as pellet; can drink salt water and get fresh water; never drinks
- drawing: ureter- leads to bladder; renal pelvis- storage spot for urine
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Term
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Definition
- Pressure filtration takes place @ renal corpuscle
- selective reabsorption in proximal convulated tubule
- Tubular secretion in distal convulated tubule
- water balance- maintained by collective duct
- can manufacture urine w/higher salt conc than blood
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Term
| Counter current magnification system requirements |
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Definition
- countercurrent flow (seen twice)
- differential permeability
- hairpin circulation
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Term
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Definition
- glomerulus attached to PCT; stuff inbtwn PCT & peritubukar capillary bed surrounding it at much higher conc than whats inside so things can move back into circulation; reclaim 97% fluid from bowmans capsule
- descending side- permeable to water and salt- inactive side; as descend down the loop of henle, loses water and salt conc increases; peritubular capillaries wraps around loop of henle (countercurrent exchange system)
- Ascending side- pumps out Na & Cl; not permeable to water; will eventually pull out so much water that pumps saturated & can't pump NaCl any faster but water can still come out
- Thiis attached to DCT whiich gets to 99=% reclaimation
- Joins to a larger tube called collecting duct
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Term
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Definition
- if trying to keep water, marine fish have to lose renal corpusle
- kidney started as a ultrafiltration/reabsorption kidney and turned into a secretoy kidney
- pipefish and seahorses
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Term
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Definition
- mot complex vert kidney
- incapable of concentratins salt conc in blood
- necessary for urea absorption & retention
- rely on extra-renal rectal glands and "chloride like cells" to manage Na and Cl
- adaptation to retain urea in body fluid
- reduces osmotic gap btwn body fluids and seawater
- TMAO stabilizes proteins and keeps them from denaturation
- don't have to drink
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Term
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Definition
- crab eating frog- only marine amphibian; dump urea into their body fluids but do not have as complicated kidneys; low water absorption and a permeable tubular system
- problem w/permeable skin- water uptake while submerged andwater loss while emerged
- excrete water and reclaim ions via peritubular capillaries & renal portal veins when sumerged
- when submerged filtration rate restricted to suite moisture conditions and renal portal system reabsorbs ion
- frogs absorb water across urinary bladder to replace cutaneous water loss
- controlled by hormone similar to ADH
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Term
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Definition
- first group free from water
- well developed salt glands
- reduced glomeruli, or aglomerular, and filter only enough water to carry uric acid to the cloaca
- excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid, a relatively insoluble molecule secreted by tubules
- cloaca reabsorbs electrolytes and water and eliminates uric acid along in feces
- can;t conc. calt any higher than salt in body fluids
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Term
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Definition
- switched to poduce uric acid b/c clyodic egg produced urea
- uric acid more expensive to make
- adv: can store uric acid w/almost no water and uric acid not toxic so can store for a long time
- entire evolution built around flight; uric acid is weight reducing b/c birds don't have bladders
- have various nephron types and better developed glomeruli to handle higher fresh water intake
- waste is semisolid paste
- salt glands eliminate salt loads, thought kidneys couldn't conc salt
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Term
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Definition
- key adaptation for exploiting dry habitats for reptiles and birds that are enclosed in impervious shell
- storing waste in a limted interior requires nitrogen be converted to uric acid which is less toxic than ammonia and urea, insolible, and can be stored using small amnt of water
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Term
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Definition
- more efficient loops of henle
- drink 1 L of seawater and gain 300CC's of water
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Term
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Definition
- all animal aerobic if given oppurtunity
- glycolysis only gives a few ATP, Krebs cycle gives a lot
- some animals can go w/out O for a long amnt of time
- ex. barnacles, mollusks
- anoxic animals accumulate oxygen debt measured by lactate
- nervous system limits ability to survive w/out O2
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Term
| Fate of oxygen in aerobic organisms |
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Definition
- pxygen is terminal electron acceptor
- O2 + 4H +4e- = 2H2O
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Term
| Composition of gas in atm |
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Definition
- nitrogen- 78%; oxygen- 20.95%, argon- 0.93%; CO2- 0.03% (our respiratory drive)
- relatively constant @ higher elevations up to 60 miles up
- Problems breathing at higher elevations b/c partial pressure of O2 decreased
- partial pressure- force that drives O2 across our membranes
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Term
| Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure |
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Definition
- each gas will exert its own partial pressure
- sum of all partial pressures = barometric pressure
- conc same as move up, partial pressure decreases as go up
- 75 torr-altitude where unacclimatized ppl plass out
- 38 torr- highest altitude where acclimitized person can survive for a few hrs
- 26 torr- high altitude 4 person to exist breathing pure O
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Term
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Definition
- behave different
- percent O in air is 20.9%
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Term
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Definition
- only works btwn gas-gas or fluid-fluid across semipermeable membrane
- only mechanism of gas exchange (O) btwn environment and living cells
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Term
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Definition
- bulk air or water mvmnt across respiratory surface
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of O and CO2 in all living cells |
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Term
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Definition
| cellular o andCO2 exchange resulting in ATP production; occurs in mitochondria |
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Term
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Definition
| O and CO2 exchange across a respiratory membrane ex. lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of O and CO2 at the tissue level ex. blood-> muscle |
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Term
| Fick's first law of diffusion |
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Definition
- negative sign implies directionality; never report as -
- J = -D x A x [(C2-C1)/X]
- D= diffusion constant
- A= respiratory surface area
- C2-C1= difference in the conc btwn medium and organism
- X= distance over which diffusion occurs
- defines every single respiratory adaptation
- the greater the A, the more gas can get across per time
- the greater the X, then diffusion goes down
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Term
| Fick's Famous Silo Problem |
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Definition
- Filled silo w/nitrogen, flipped switch allowing O in
- took 32 min for first O2 molecule to hit bottom
- Filled silo w/water, flipped switch allowing O in
- 42 years before first O2 molecule hit bottom
- showed diffusion thru water very slow
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Term
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Definition
- "how big can a cell really be, an rely on diffuison alone to get O in it?"
- fractional oxygen conc= 0.21
- F(O2) = [(Vo2)xr^2]/6K
- Vo2= rate of oxygen consumption
- r= radius
- used connective tissue data
- no cell can be bigger than 1mm or components w/in a cell can be further away than 1mm from O
- changing shape could increase SA= good
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Term
| Solutions to Harvey's Discovery |
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Definition
- reduce Vo2
- have more efficient K
- make mebrane thinner
- make more membrane
- increase the SA by changing shape
- stirring motor for mixing
- move medium on both side of membrane
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Term
| Respiratory system characteristics |
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Definition
- increase driving pressure
- high SA
- convection: circulation of blood
- ventilation
- thin, permeable membrane
- respiratory pigments (hemoglobin- picks up O; myoglobin- increases diffusion rate by 8x)
- short distance from source of O
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Term
| temperature affecting diffusion of O |
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Definition
- 10% biological rate increase for every one degree temp
- does not play huge role in diffusion
- increase temp, increase random molecular motion, speed up difusion
- 1 degree raise in temp, gain of O by 1.4%
- increase twmp by 1 degree, metabolism increases 10%
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Term
| Nature of the biological material- affect diffusion of O |
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Definition
- K changes as move from medium to medium
- K in air is 11, K in pure water is 3.4
- K in biological material - 1.4
- K in chitin -.13
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Term
| Nature of medium- affect diffusion of O |
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Definition
- water bad medium from viscosity and density
- water/blood is expensive to move
- boundary layers bad
- 1% of total energy from aerobic pathway to move air across our respiratory surface
- 50% of energy generated from oxygen used to move water across respiratory surface
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Term
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Definition
- measurement of efficiency
- ((inspired-expired oxygen)/inspired)x100 = % oxygen uptake
- we only get 20% of O we inhale
- tna fish get 99%
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Term
| convection- ventilation/perfusion considerations |
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Definition
- perfusion-how well we perfuse area w/body fluids
- easy to run but initial investment expensive
- membranes: dual function; need to be structurally sound
- internal structures can be thinner and easier to move things across
- external structures exposed directly to environment are thicker
- human lung- 0.2-0.1 microns
- gills- 0.5-1 microns
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Term
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Definition
- V is ventilation constant
- Q is perfusion constant
- VQ ratios are highly variable from animal group to group
- influenced by: properties of respiratory system/medium (thickness, water or air), temperature, type and conc of respiratory pigment (4 types)
- mammals: about 1:1; for every L of blood moved across surface, a L of air is moved across on other side
- reptiles/amphibians: 2:1-5:1 due to less SA, thicker membrane, less hemoglobin
- fish: 35-40:1 - very efficient at picking O out of water, water doesn't have much O in it so fish have to move alot of water across
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Term
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Definition
- medium is moving same direction as the blood
- parallel flow
- no animal designs this system intentionally
- not efficient
- begins w/big gradient and comes down to equilibrium
- not much O uptake
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Term
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Definition
- mammals (humans)
- unregulated flow (nondirectional)
- alveolus- cluster of air sacs w/thin membranes and have tidal ventilation; never collapses; never a complete gas exchange; gas is constantly mixing
- no overlap, not very good at O uptake
- driving pressure is high at first and drops quickly
- venous blood O levels low and pick up O to arterial lvls
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Term
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Definition
- bird lung
- much more efficient
- parabronchi- large parallel tubes that allow gas to pass thru; do not expand or contract; cracks on their sides called air capillaries: tunnels where O exchange takes place
- blood capillaries intersect parabronchi at an angle- crosscurrent flow- blood moves across as singel sheetand intersects parabronchi at different points
- intersect on left side, not much O so little uptake
- intersect on right side, a lot of O and more uptake
- decreasing uptake by hemoglobin right to left b/c inspired gas looses O as it moves in the parabronchi
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Term
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Definition
- fish gills
- blood and medium flow countercurrent
- extremely efficient- 50% overlap
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Term
| integument respiratory structure |
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Definition
- cutaneous O uptake (amphibians)
- pick up O across the skin/body surface
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Term
| Branchial respiratory structure |
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Definition
- gilled animals (crabs, fishes)
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Term
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Definition
- seen in sea cucumbers
- can also pick up O across tentacles and skin
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Term
| trachea respiratory structure |
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Definition
- insects
- set of branching tubes that innervate
- no cell more than 1/2mm from branching tube (close enough for O to diffuse)
- insects do not use body fluids to distribute O
- independent system
- flight muscles directly next to
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Term
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Definition
- skin to pick up O
- problem: skin has to be thick for protection
- 8[O2]xK/Vo2 - limkiting thickness
- problem: skin forms boundary layersin water and no mechanism for ventilation in this medium
- frogs: in summer, skin is important for 80% CO2 excretion
- sea snakes: 30-60%
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Term
| gills and brachial gas exchange |
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Definition
- abiltiy of countercurrent flow
- expansion ofbody wall pushed outward is a gill
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Term
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Definition
- have parapodia used for O uptake
- some have true gills to only uptake O
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Term
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Definition
- retractile dermal papilla- skin gills
- perivisceral system- fluid filled and lined w/cilia; only time see circulation by cilia for respiratory purposes (prevent boundary layers)
- tube feet- podia
- holothuroidians- sea cucumbers; water breathing lung or respiratory tree (60% of O comes from it)
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Term
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Definition
- all have gills at some point
- ctenidia gills- broad flattened filaments w/ciliated margins
- some molluska have lost their gills and use lungs
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Term
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Definition
- crustaceans: best developed; ventilated by scaphognathite- derived from 2nd maxilliaped; countercurrent
- Horseshoe crabs/spiders: book gills; struts to keep from collapsing
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Term
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Definition
- primary filament with secondary filament branches that show micro ridges
- micro ridges increase SA
- need lg SA for O uptake
- fish gills most efficient
- tuna fish filaments so thin and close together they run risk of sticking together; solve this they have supports to help keep them open
- image
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Term
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Definition
- cutaneous respiration
- tracheal systems
- diffusion lungs and bladders
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Term
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Definition
- insects
- microscopic network of tubes that permeate over entire body
- body fluids don't carry O so get O direct thru tracheal system
- mitochondria w/in the flight muscles need a constant supply of O, located as close as 0.1 microns from nearest tracheal branch (all on one side)
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Term
| aquatic insects tracheal system |
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Definition
- gills pass O into branched trachea thru spherical
- thin membrane on surface to let O in but not water
- put a lot of SA on to membrane, looks like a gill and attaches to spherical
- can hold a bubble of air against spherical and allow bubble to act as gill
- diffusion gill- insect pulls O in, bubble shrinks and partial pressure decreases, vol N stays the same and has higher partial pressure inside than out, N wants to move out, bubble even smaller
- animal must stay near surface to replenish
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Term
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Definition
- bubble same size
- hairs on leg can hold bubble open and tuck bubble under wings
- O moves out, partial pressure of entire bubble decreases, driving pressure increases, and O moves into bubble faster
- should be able to dive forever in theory
- beetles
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Term
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Definition
- arachnids
- invaginated folds in the body
- llamellae held apart by spacer bars (struts)
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Term
| Diffusion lungs of pulmonate snails |
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Definition
- passive diffusion lungs
- wall of mantle cavity has a lot of SA
- they can ventilate, not so passive
- nuemostone- opening on mantle cavity for gas exchange
- some snails evolved tube liek snorkels and migrated back into water
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Term
| terrestrial crabs- branchial chamber of specialization |
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Definition
- gilsl greatly reduced or absent
- O uptake has to occur in branchial cavity
- wall has a lot of SA and body fluid flow, good for picking up O
- branchiostegites- region of carapace covering the branchial chambers
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Term
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Definition
- located in fish mouth and is highly vascularized
- beta fish is example
- use to extract O out
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Term
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Definition
- plethadonts- no lungs
- african clawed frog (xenopus)- simplest lungs
- marine toad bufo marinus- SA is 20cm2; more SA on theirlungs; compartmentalized
- mouse SA is 800cm2
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Term
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Definition
- intermediate btwn amphibians and mammals
- lung divided into anterior and caudal sections
- saccular non vascularized caudal air sac: storage of water
- highly vascularized anterior section divided into faveoli: provides for gas exchange; a single breath can cycle across respiratory surface many times
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Term
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Definition
- most complex lungs and SA (tennis court)
- alveoli- make up 10-12% of our gas exchange SA
- efficient
- blood is in contact w/oxygen exchange surface for 0.75 s
- we reach equilibrium in blood stream in 0.2 s
- capillaries so thin its like blood moving as a sheet
- born w/3 billion alveoli and end w/1 billion
- pull out 5-10% O in air
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Term
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Definition
- most specialized of all; long trachea
- 70% O out of air
- air sacs: non-respiratory
- have parallel cylindrical tubes called parabronchi (picks up O)
- air capillaries are extensions of parabronchi
- air moves in 1 direction thru parabronchi
- anterior and posterior air sac
- image
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Term
| 5 major water balance problems in different habitats |
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Definition
- freshwater- verts are saltier than freshwater; absorb water
- saltwater- vert in salt waterhave much less salt in body then environemnt; loos water
- estuary- sometimes gain, sometimes loss
- terrestrial- no free access to water so must carry water w/us and renew it
- endoparasites- let hosts worry about problems
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Term
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Definition
- george bartholomew
- potentials for water loss: urine, feces, sweating, EWL, integument water loss
- potentials for water gain: drinking, preformed water in fruits and seeds, metabolic water
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Term
| Direct control of water balance |
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Definition
- tactic: contractile vacuoles
- different adaptations:
- adaptations to gain or dump water directly from environment
- adaptations that result in prevention of water loss
- adaptations for water storage
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Term
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Definition
- EWL = -D (change Xwv/change in d)
- difference in water vapor density calculated empriically
- resistance is easier to measure
- the higher the number = the greater the resistance of EWL
- bigger the number, drier the envnment they can live in
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Term
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Definition
- spongiome layer: densely packed w/mitochpmdria, small vessicles, and microtubules
- vesicles are making their way to the inside of contractile vacuole in order to dump their water load
- water cannot escape from the contractile vacuole
- arginine vasopressin- reduces vacuole permeability of the contractile vacuole is high and water can leak back out so the contractile vacuole fills up slowly
- arginine levels high, water is released
- very expensive
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Term
| mollusks- retarding water loss |
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Definition
- high EWL
- mucus
- desert snails resistance= 113418 sue to shell
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Term
| thropods- retard water lossr |
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Definition
- epicuticle- contains wax which makes excellent barrier
- ghost crab- 30-40
- spiders: 80-200
- freshwater insect: 207
- desert scorpion: 1000-2000
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Term
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Definition
- bony scales act like exoskeleton: 50-300
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Term
| amphibians- retard water loss |
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Definition
- "waterproof" frogs- wiping behavior and cutaneous lipid glands (secrete waxy compound and use back legs to wipe compound over back of skin
- genus trachycephalus: goesin burrow when no rain; uses head as plug; co-ossified skull- skin is fused to the skull; increases resistance of head
- estivating- produce layers upon layers of epidermis
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Term
| reptiles retard water loss |
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Definition
- scaled and has epeidermis
- resistance= 500-600
- free from water but have to be near for eggs (no shell)
- have to shed scales
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Term
| mammals retard water loss |
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Definition
- have evaporation across respiratory surface and no way to stop
- possible adaptations:
- perhaps do not fully saturate air when meets lungs
- higher oxygen extraction- impossible b/c would need more hemoglobin which stored in RBC, make blood more viscous, make us sweat and die
- perhaps exhale air at lower than body temp; warm air holds more water vapor; WINNER; temporal counter current heat exchange
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